Canaanite Tombs and Burial Practices | Middle East And North Africa

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BURIAL PRACTICES IN MIDDLE BRONZE AGE (2200 - 1570 B.C.) ISRAEL

John R. Abercrombie of the University of Pennsylvania wrote: Middle Bronze Age (2200 - 1570 B.C.) “Is a period of prolific tomb construction. Round or square-shaped vertical shafts lead through a very narrow opening into a single circular chamber at the bottom of the shaft. Multiple chambers do occur (Northern Cemetery Beth Shan, pp. 19-60), but are less common than single shaft tombs. The burial chambers tend to be hemispherical in shape. Surprisingly the chambers also seem rather spacious. A number of these tombs may be equipped with lamp niches. [Sources: John R. Abercrombie, University of Pennsylvania, James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET), Princeton, Boston University, bu.edu/anep/MB.html |*|]

“Middle Bronze I burials contain one or two primary burials more often than not in a fetal, fully-flexed position. Burials often lie opposite the narrow tomb entrance. Many Skeletons may be somewhat disarticulated perhaps by design. (See Tombs 50 Gibeon [el Jib] and 89 Beth Shan.) Grave goods are meager in comparison to later periods, and often consist of a piece of pottery or sometimes a copper javelin point. Tombs at Jericho also contained additional grave goods including animal bones usually found in the center of the tomb, occasionally paste and stone beads, and bronze or copper decorative studs that Kathleen Kenyon thought were attached to hilts and staffs (Jericho II., pp. 555-556). Another type of burial chamber, a dolmen, may date to the early Middle Bronze Age although other dolmens date to the Chalcolithic and other periods. Tumuli burials in the Negev contain the early Middle Bronze Age remains usually a single burial with one or two pottery pieces. |*|

“Unlike later periods when the dead are buried in cemeteries on the slopes of the tell or in rock-cut tombs some distance away from the city itself, Middle Bronze burials may be deposited within the city itself (e.g. unpublished level of Beth Shan). Infant burials in jars and even some rather wealthy burials in constructed crypts are found under houses and palaces (e.g. Megiddo and Tel Dan). Early tombs cut in the early Middle Bronze Age period are reused in this period as well. |*|

“Burials at Gibeon (el Jib) and Jericho (Tell es-Sultan) provide excellent examples of secondary burial. The last burial may lie on a bed of wood, stone or woven mat usually in the center of the tomb. At Jericho, many tombs had a wooden table next to the last interment. Food offerings (mutton?) and other artifacts appear to have been placed on the table for the deceased. As for earlier burials and their accompanying artifacts, they were swept to the rear of the tomb. Many times only the long bones and skull are kept. Generally Middle Bronze tombs contain the remains of ten to as many as fifty individuals. (For a more complete discussion of burial practices, see: Jericho II., pp.550, 566-579.) |*|

Burial Practices in the Late Bronze Age (1570 - 1200 B.C.)

Abercrombie wrote: “Large cemeteries and major tombs have been uncovered at a number of sites: Deir el-Balah, Tell el-Farah (S), Tell el-Ajjul, Tell Abu Hawam, Megiddo, Beth Shan and Tell es-Sa'idiyeh. In this period, burials are less commonly found inside the city, as was characteristic in the Middle Bronze Age, and are generally deposited outside the towns on the tell slopes (Tell es-Sa'idiyeh) or gentle rises in the land near the ancient city (Tell el-Farah S). (Note: A few examples of burials inside city walls still can be cited from this period (See, Tel Dan Tomb 387).) || [Sources: John R. Abercrombie, University of Pennsylvania, Department of Religious Studies, University of Pennsylvania; James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET), Princeton, Boston University, bu.edu/anep/MB.html ||]

“The 900 cemetery at Farah (S) is particularly informative about changes in burial practices. Primary burials lying in a supine fully extended position becomes the more common burial fashion rather than secondary burial characteristic of Middle Bronze II. (Compare the late Middle Bronze Age Gibeon Tomb 15 with Late Bronze Age (1570 - 1200 B.C.) cemetery at Tell es-Sa'idiyeh.) This change in fashion continues into the early Iron Age although secondary burial does not completely disappear (see, Baq'ah, Lachish 40004, Megiddo 1100, 1145, Gezer 10A, Tomb 1 Pella, Tomb 387 Dan). |*|

“Coffin burials first appear in the Late Bronze Age. The earliest examples from Akko and Gezer are clay boxes. The Gezer coffin with it handles reminds most excavators of coffins from the Aegean world, yet in general ways it bears similarities to the unusual and perhaps minature clay boxes from the Beth Shan temples. In the thirteenth century anthropoid coffin can be cited from a number of sites: Beth Shan, Lachish and Deir el-Balah. Anthropoid coffin burials continue to be employed in the Iron Age: Beth Shan, Dhibah, Sahab and Amman. |*|

“Perhaps the use of coffins to preserve the dead reflects Egyptian influence on the culture. Certainly this influence of Egypt on Palestine is quite evident in two unique bitumen burials from Tell es-Sa'idiyeh. Burial of infants, children and sometimes adults are found in storage jars and pithoi. This practice of jar burials especially for infants and small children can be cited from the Middle Bronze and Iron Age (1200 - 550 B.C.) as well. |*|

Burial Practices and Cremations in the Iron Age

stone mask from Hebron Hills

Abercrombie wrote: “Primary burial continues into the Iron Age (1200 - 550 B.C.) with little significant change from Bronze Age examples. Most burials are single or double burials (see Tell es-Sa'idiyeh) in earthen graves (100 cemetery Tell el-Farah S,Tell es-Sa'idiyeh, Zeror), stone-lined cists (Tell es-Sa'idiyeh, Zeror) or cut tombs (Tell el-Farah S 500). More often than not, the burial lies in the supine fully extended position with hands at the side. Children and infants generally lie in a fetal position and may also be deposited in storage jars. This type of burial style continues into the late Iron Age (200 cemetery Tell el-Farah (S) and Zeror Cist Tombs), though in both cemeteries evidence of secondary burial can be cited (see Zeror Cist Tomb 1). [Sources: John R. Abercrombie, University of Pennsylvania, James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET), Princeton, Boston University, ANEP, 456-459, 851- 853, bu.edu/anep/MB.html |*|]

“In some of the richer primary burials are placed in anthropoid coffins. Such coffin burials can be cited from many sites in the early Iron Age (Beth Shan Tomb 7 and 66, Tell el-Farah (S) 500). Many archaeologists identify the unique grosteque coffin burials with the Sea People. By The Late Iron Age, the known anthropoid coffin burials occur almost exclusively in the Transjordan at Dhiban, Sahab and Amman. |*|

Cremation burial, unknown in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, appears in the early Iron Age and continues into The Late Iron Age. The earliest form of cremation burial, urn burial, (Azor) occurs almost exclusively in the coastal region of southern Palestine. (NOTE: only two known examples predate the 10th century.) In the tenth-eighth century, these urn burials (er-Reqeish, 200 cemetery Tell el-Farah S) bear striking similarity to contemporary burials in the Phoenician colonies of north Africa. By late The Late Iron Age, it appears that cremation urn burials may be replaced by cremation pyre burials, though there is minimal evidence at this time to confirm this observation. |*|

“Secondary burial, which reappears in the hill country and Transjordan in Iron I, becomes the dominant burial fashion by The Late Iron Age. Large bone piles are usually located at the back of the tombs or in specially cut bone pits. Late the late Iron Age tombs, containing secondary burial, have specialized features including bone pits, beds and even pillow rests. |*|

“Tomb architecture develops from simple rectangular structures with little elaboration in Iron I-II to complex square tombs with specialized features by the end of the Iron Age. The earlier the late Iron Age tombs tend to be rectangular rooms cut into the slope of the tell. By the eighth century, square-shaped tombs replace the rectangular design. Many of these tombs have bone pits in the back, into which earlier burials were swept; beds for the deceased; and even headrests or lamp niches. By the end of the seventh century, some of these square-shaped tombs are linked together around a central entrance much like we find in kokkim tombs of the later periods.” |*|

Canaanite Funerary Rites in the Bible

Genesis 23:19 After this, Abraham buried Sarah his wife in the cave of the field of Mach-pe'lah east of Mamre (that is, Hebron) in the land of Canaan. [Source: John R. Abercrombie, Boston University, bu.edu, Dr. John R. Abercrombie, Department of Religious Studies, University of Pennsylvania]

Canaanite's Daughter

Genesis 25:8 Abraham breathed his last and died in a good old age, an old man and full of years, and was gathered to his people.

Genesis 35:20 and Jacob set up a pillar upon her grave; it is the pillar of Rachel's tomb, which is there to this day.

Genesis 50:13 for his sons carried him to the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field at Mach-pe'lah, to the east of Mamre, which Abraham bought with the field from Ephron the Hittite, to possess as a burying place.

Genesis 50:26 So Joseph died, being a hundred and ten years old; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.

Judges 8:32 And Gideon the son of Jo'ash died in a good old age, and was buried in the tomb of Jo'ash his father, at Ophrah of the Abiez'rites.

Judges 16:31 Then his brothers and all his family came down and took him and brought him up and buried him between Zorah and Esh'ta-ol in the tomb of Mano'ah his father. He had judged Israel twenty years.

II Samuel 2:32a And they took up As'ahel, and buried him in the tomb of his father,

II Samuel 3:31 Then David said to Jo'ab and to all the people who were with him,"Rend your clothes, and gird on sackcloth, and mourn before Abner." And King David followed the bier.

II Samuel 4:12 And David commanded his young men, and they killed them, and cut off their hands and feet, and hanged them beside the pool at Hebron. But they took the head of Ish-bo'sheth, and buried it in the tomb of Abner at Hebron.

II Samuel 17:23 When Ahith'ophel saw that his counsel was not followed, he saddled his ass, and went off home to his own city. And he set his house in order, and hanged himself; and he died, and was buried in the tomb of his father.

II Samuel 21:14 And they buried the bones of Saul and his son Jonathan in the land of Benjamin in Zela, in the tomb of Kish his father; and they did all that the king commanded. And after that God heeded supplications for the land.

I Kings 13:22 but have come back, and have eaten bread and drunk water in the place of which he said to you, "Eat no bread, and drink no water"; your body shall not come to the tomb of your fathers.'"

I Kings 13:31 And after he had buried him, he said to his sons, "When I die, bury me in the grave in which the man of God is buried; lay my bones beside his bones.

II Kings 9:28 His servants carried him in a chariot to Jerusalem, and buried him in his tomb with his fathers in the city of David.

II Chronicles16:14 They buried him in the tomb which he had hewn out for himself in the city of David. They laid him on a bier which had been filled with various kinds of spices prepared by the perfumer's art; and they made a very great fire in his honor.

Undisturbed Tomb at Gibeon (El Jib Tomb 50)

John R.Abercrombie of the University of Pennsylvania wrote: Tomb 50 at Gideon “was discovered by accident as a workman was cleaning the shaft of Tomb 31. The tomb's entrance remained blocked and all indications are that the tomb is undisturbed since it was sealed four millennia ago. There is, however, some evidence that water did seep into the tomb and perhaps some pottery may have moved slightly from their original locations. The tomb has a roundish chamber with a lamp niche near the entrance on the west wall. Two burials were discovered. The south burial generally is undisturbed except that the skull is missing. The bones of Burial 2 show more disturbance. Both burials appear to lie in a fetal position.” [Sources: John R. Abercrombie, University of Pennsylvania, James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET), Princeton, Boston University, ANEP, 456-459, 851- 853, bu.edu/anep/MB.html |*|] Contents of Tomb 50: Carinated bowl (P1198). Buff to light brown ware with cream slip burnished horizontally; Carinated bowl (P1243). Buff ware, burnished; Carinated bowl (P1308). Buff ware; Piriform Juglet (P1174) with pointed base. Single handle; brown slip vertically burnished; Cylindrical Juglet (P1382). Double handle; burnished. NOTE: Two incised lines appear on the barrel a few centimeters above the base; Dipper Juglet (P1236). Red to buff ware, burnished; Lamp (P1345). Buff ware with buff slip; Storage Jar (P1598). Four handles; Daggers, knives and pommels; Dagger (B83) with slight midrib; two holes remaining; rivet attached; Knife (B78) with curved point; three rivet holes; rivets attached; Knife (B112) with curved point; three rivet holes; rivets attached; White Steatite (J44). Cross pattern with curled ends. Inscription: nfr; White Steatite (J52); White Steatite (J49); White Steatite (J54). Joined petals; White Steatite (J46). Five linked scrolls and four triangles. Scarab mounted on gold ring; White Steatite (J51). Stylized hieroglyphics bordered by scroll pattern; White Steatite (J48). Cartouche; White Steatite (J47). Inscription; Toggle Pins; (B95). Plain shaft; (B80). Shaft decorated with incised lines above eye; (B84). Shaft twisted spirally above eye; (B89). Shaft twisted spirally above eye;

Funerary Inscriptions from the Iron Age (1200 - 550 B.C.) and Persian Period

Canaanite seated goddess

Tale of Aqhat, Ugarit (14th century B.C.)
One who may set up the stela of his ancestral god
In the sanctuary which enshrines his forefather,
Who may pour out his liquid offering to the ground,
Even to the dust wine after him. [Source: James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET), Princeton, 1969, web.archive.org]

"Sepulchral Inscriptions of Ahiram of Byblos” (early 10th century B.C.)" A sarcophagus made by [It]toba'l, the son of Ahiram, king of. Byblos, for Ahiram, his father, as his eternal (dweIling-)place. If there be a king among kings and a governor among governors and an army commander up in Byblos who shall uncover this sarcophagus, let his judicial staff be broken, let his royal throne be upset! May peace flee from Byblos, and he himself be wiped out! [Source: ANET., p 661. P. Montet, Byblos et l'Egypte (Paris, 1928-29), p 236- 238]

"Tabnit of Sidon” (early 5th century B.C.): I, Tabnit, priest of Astarte, king of Sidon, the son of Eshmun'azar, priest of Astarte, king of Sidon, am lying in this sarcophagus. Whoever you are who might find this sarcophagus, don't, don't open it and don't disturb me, for no silver has been given rue, no gold and no jewelry whatever has been given me! Only 1 (myself) am lying in this sarcophagus. Don't, don't open it, and don't disturb me, for such a thing would be an abomination to Astarte! But if you do open it and if you do disturb me, may (you) not have any seed among the living under the sun or rest ing-place together with the shades! ANET., p.662. This inscription, which was excavated in 1887, dates, as is now generally held on historical and archaeological grounds, from Achaemenid times, apparently, the early fifth century re! also no. 4, n. 4). Bibliography: M. Lidzbarski, Hanavucn nordsemitischen Epigraphik (Weimar, I898), p. 417, pl. iv;

Canaanite Tomb Yields Jar with 4,000-Year-Old Decapitated Toads

Excavations of a burial site in Jerusalem have yielded a jar with decapitated toads, exotic myrtle and date pollen. Martha Henriques wrote in the International Business Times, “A total of nine headless toads have been found in an ancient jar in a Canaanite tomb just outside Jerusalem's Biblical Zoo. The discovery is puzzling, as offerings of toads aren't usually found in ancient graves in the area. The jar was found in a tomb shaft first excavated in 1991. Archaeologists were cleaning debris from the site this year when they found a circular stone seal blocking off the entrance of a shaft. Below this, a tomb was carved out of limestone, measuring about 1.5m long, 1.2m wide and 80cm high. One partial skeleton was inside, curled in the foetal position with its head on a headrest. [Source: Martha Henriques, International Business Times, September 28, 2017 \=/]

“The grave contained pollen from date palms and myrtle bushes, plants not native to the local area. There was also the jar full of the remains of toads. Filling jars with food was a common practice in the Bronze Age Middle East. The dead were buried with the sustenance they might need in the next life. Common offerings included sheep, goat, ox or gazelle meat in a ceramic jar. \=/

“This grave was one of only two Bronze Age burial sites where toads were on the menu in the afterlife. As the food in the burials were typically part of the everyday cuisine of the culture, toads are thought to have been a regular part of the local people's diet. They may have been a particularly acquired taste. It's thought that for the afterlife, the toads were decapitated to help remove their poisonous skin. "We understand that this was part of the food consumed while still alive," Shua Kisilevitz of the Israel Antiquities Authority – and co-director of the dig – told the Times of Israel. \=/

"In recent years excavations in the area have uncovered two settlement sites, two temples and a number of cemeteries, which provide new insight into the life of the local population at that time," dig directors Kisilevitz and Zohar Turgeman-Yaffe said in a statement.” \=/

3,800-Year-Old Baby Buried in a Jar in Israel

In 2020, archaeologists excavating a site in Jaffa, Israel announced that they had found a 3,800-year-old jar containing the skeleton of a baby. Ariel David of Haaretz, reported that researchers from the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) uncovered the poorly preserved remains, which were buried in a shallow pit about three meters (ten feet) below ground level, while surveying the ruins of the 4,000-year-old city ahead of construction. The practice of burying babies in jars dates back to the Bronze Age and continued until as recently as the 20th century, IAA archaeologist Yoav Arbel told Live Science. [Source: Isis Davis-Marks, Smithsonian magazine, December 30, 2020]

While evidence of such funerary rituals regularly appears in the archaeological record, scholars remain unsure of the practice’s purpose. “You might go to the practical thing and say that the bodies were so fragile, [maybe] they felt the need to protect it from the environment, even though it is dead,” says Arbel. “But there’s always the interpretation that the jar is almost like a womb, so basically the idea is to return [the] baby back into Mother Earth, or into the symbolic protection of his mother.” Archaeologist Alfredo Mederos Martin, who was not involved in the IAA research, told Ancient Origins that people across the ancient world entombed children in jars as early as 4,500 B.C. Methods varied from place to place, with civilizations adapting the process to reflect their unique conceptions of death.

In a 2019 article published in the Biblical Archaeology Review, scholar Beth Alpert Nakhai suggested that the jars’ burial beneath the home signified “a desire on the part of [the] dead infant’s mother to care for her child in death, as she would have cared for that child in life.” These kinds of burials could also reflect a change in ancient societies’ attitude toward the young; previously, prehistoric humans had only buried adults in jars, “indicating that children were [thought] to be of little importance,” as Ruth Schuster pointed out for Haaretz in 2018.

Image Sources: Wikimedia, Commons, Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bible in Bildern, 1860

Text Sources: John R. Abercrombie, University of Pennsylvania, Department of Religious Studies, University of Pennsylvania; James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts (ANET), Princeton, Boston University, bu.edu/anep/MB.html; “Old Testament Life and Literature” by Gerald A. Larue, New International Version (NIV) of The Bible, biblegateway.com; Wikipedia, National Geographic, BBC, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Times of London, The New Yorker, Reuters, AP, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, and various books and other publications.

Last updated March 2024

Last updated February 2024