Early Pyramids of Ancient Egypt: Imhotep, Snefru and the Step Pyramid of Djoser | Middle East And North Africa

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EARLY PYRAMIDS OF ANCIENT EGYPT

Bent pyramid
The first true pyramid was built by Sneferu, the first king of the Fourth Dynasty. His son and successor, Khufu, built the Great Pyramid at Giza. this, with its two companions on the same site, was considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. [Source: Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Egypt: A Country Study, Library of Congress, 1990]

The building and equipping of funerary monuments represented the single largest industry through the Old Kingdom and, after a break, the Middle Kingdom as well. The channeling of so much of the country's resources into building and equipping funerary monuments may seem unproductive by modern standards, but pyramid building seems to have been essential for the growth of pharaonic civilization.

According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “The earliest known pyramid structure is that of the Pyramid of Meidum. There are two theories as to the pyramids construction. One states that the pyramid was started by Huni, Snefer's predecessor, the other that it was began and ended with Sneferu. Whatever the case, the reign of Sneferu went on to produce two more pyramids after Meidum. Meidum, however, was not always in it's rough state as is seen in the picture at left. As is evidenced by graffiti on the outside of the pyramid, the pyramid survived well into the time of the 18th Dynasty. Meidum still stands as a great attempt, if not a triumph of Egyptian architecture. Other pyramids constructed during the time of the Fourth Dynasty include, the Pyramid of Djeddefre, (created by the son of the Pharaoh Khufu), The Pyramids of Giza, The Sphinx, and many many other tombs, temples and pyramids. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]

Before the Pyramids

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Step Pyramid of Djoser
Before the pyramids, the monuments the Egyptians built for themselves were fortresslike facilities enclosed by mud-brick walls. It is presumed that inside the mortuary complexes where people gathered to honor their departed rule, but because of a dearth of inscriptions related to them archaeologists don’t know much about them. David O’Conner, an Egyptologist at the Institute of Fine Arts at New York University, has found eight such enclosures at Aybdos and believes there are at least a couple more out there waiting to be discovered. [Source: John Noble Wilford, New York Times, January 2007]

Mounds of crumbled mud brick are all that remain of these structures today. In recent years an effort has been made to restore and rebuild one of them — Shunet el-Zebib in Abydos. Built for King Khasekhhemwy, who ruled in the second dynasty around 2780 B.C., it was the last and largest of the cult buildings and the only major one still standing in a clearly recognizable form. Located on the desert plain in Abydos, it covers roughly one hectare and embraces walls that were 11 meters tall and five meters thick. In one enclosure remains were found of benches for statues and inscribed tablets as well as evidence of spilled libations and burnt incense.

John Noble Wilford wrote in the New York Times, “At Shunet el-Zebin, the pre-pyramid architecture represents a grandeur of purpose and investment of time and labor signifying expanding royal power. High, thick double walls, more massive than that for any previous mortuary complex, enclose a rectangular open space. Originally the structure had four monumental gates and a whitewashed facade that glistened in the sun...The open area in the center could accommodate a multitude of people, though archaeologists are not sure if the public was allowed inside. Traces of small chapels have been uncovered inside the walls. Each was dedicated to a specific king.” Rulers were not buried at the sites. The underground royal tombs are about 1.5 kilometers south of the excavated enclosures.”

Writing in the “The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt”, Kaythrn Bard, an Egyptologist at Boston University, wrote: “The paramount role of the king is certainly expressed in these monuments, and the symbols of the royal mortuary cult which evolved at Abydos were to become further elaborated in the pyramid complexes” of later dynasties.

Imhotep, the Pyramid Architect

Imhotep

The Pyramid Age is associated with Chancellor Imhotep, the adviser, administrator, and architect of Pharaoh Djoser. He built the pharaoh's funerary complex, including his tomb, the Step Pyramid, at Saqqarah. Imhotep is famed as the inventor of building in dressed stone. His architectural genius lay in his use of durable, fine-quality limestone to imitate the brick, wood, and reed structures that have since disappeared. [Source: Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Egypt: A Country Study, Library of Congress, 1990]

Imhotep is regarded as the master mind behind the pyramids. In addition to being an architect and designing the first pyramid — which has lasted until today — he was a sculptor, poet priest, government official, astrologer, magician and a healer. One ancient inscription even gave Imhotep credit for saving his country from famine by convincing Khnum, the god of the first cataract, to let the floods return. After his death, Imhotep was worshiped as a god of wisdom. Small statues often show him as a learned man holding a papyrus scroll.

According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: Imhotep “was born a commoner during the Third Dynasty. He was very skilled and was dedicated to the ideals of his nation. Imhotep quickly rose through the ranks of the temple and court to become a vizier and the High Priest of Ptah. He wrote many medical and didactic texts. He is best known, however, as the chief architect of the step pyramid at Saqqara. It remains today as one of the most brilliant architecture wonders of the ancient world. During the New Kingdom, Imhotep was deified and became the "Son of Ptah." The Romans Claudius and Tiberius inscribed their praises of Imhotep in the temples in Egypt. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com]

"Imhotep is usually regarded as the first architect in Egypt to build in stone and is credited with the building of Djoser's step pyramid complex" Marc Van De Mieroop, a professor of history at Columbia University, told Live Science. "There's an inscription with his name combined with that of Djoser in which he is called chief of sculptors. In later ancient Egypt he was considered a sage." [Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science, August 30, 2023]

Mastabas, Saqqara and the First Pyramid

The first pyramid built that remains standing today is the Step Pyramid of Djoser built in 2700 B.C. It is regarded as the world’s first big stone building. Before this time the Egyptians burned their dead in brick structures called “ mastabas” . Step pyramids were designed to be a “staircases to heaven.” They were "not the symbol of a ladder but an actual one, by which the soul of the dead ruler might climb to the sky, joining the gods in immortality.”

Black Pyramid of Amenemhet III
The basketball- to oven-size stones used to make this pyramid were quarried several miles away from the pyramid site at a limestone cliff, called Tura, on the other side of the Nile. Tura was the name of the quarry where much of the stone used to build the pyramids was quarried and the limestone that was quarried there. Tufa limestone was transported 400 miles down river to Aswan where it was used for a pharaoh's burial chamber.

The stones of the pyramids were not cemented together; they relied on the angle of incline for stability. We are not exactly sure what the interior of step pyramids looked like. The disintegrated pyramid of Meidum near Memphis was a step pyramid with a core covered with six layers of Tura limestone blocks.

Saqqara (20 miles south of Cairo) is the home of ancient Egypt's oldest cemetery and was a religious center for the ancient capital of Memphis. Built on top of plateau that overlooks Memphis, it is famous for its mastabas (tombs) and step pyramids (the oldest large building in the world). Most of the buildings were built between 3,100 and 2181 B.C. The most famous of these is the Step Pyramid of Djoser, built in Third Dynasty of Old Kingdom for a pharaoh named Djoser (Djoser). It is possible to ride by camel from the Great Pyramids of Giza to Saqqara. This route passes by the pyramids of Abu Sir and Abu Gaurab that are otherwise difficult to reach.

Saqqara sits on the top or a barren, rocky escarpment above the green Nile Valley. It was established as a burial ground for Memphis. The cemetery area was huge. It stretched for 45 miles along the Nile. Many of the tombs are mastabas, which have been built above the ground. There was an entire cemetery devoted to mummified cats.

Step Pyramid of Djoser

Step Pyramid of Djoser was built in 2700 B.C., making it the oldest pyramid in Egypt and perhaps "the world's first construction project." Made primarily of stones about 23 centimeters (nine inches) square, the Step Pyramid is roughly the same size as the smallest of the three main pyramid at Giza and is the oldest known stone building of its size. Comparable-size buildings in Mesopotamia were made of mud bricks. The largest stones in the Step Pyramid weigh about 300 kilograms (about 661 pounds),

The Pyramid of Djoser (32 kilometers, 20 miles to the south of Cairo) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was built in the Saqqara necropolis — the largest pyramid-related funerary complex in the world — in Egypt's former capital Memphis. Constructed between 2667 and 2648 B.C., and about 62 meters (200 feet) high, it is the oldest large-scale stone monument still standing — tall enough to make the Pharaoh's ascent into heaven easier — and was the first large structure made of stone, and led the way to Egypt building more famous pyramids, like the Great Pyramid of Giza. Near the Step Pyramid is a ruined pyramid built by Pepi II, in 2250 B.C. It was originally 172 feet high, but now it is rubble. Altogether there are 13 pyramids in Saqqara, all of them older and smaller than the ones at Giza. Most are ruins.

Djoser ruled for 19 years during Ancient Egypt's Third Dynasty. A statue of him was once inside the step pyramid of Djoser. When Djoser was buried the opening was closed off with a 3.5-ton block of granite. Djoser's pyramid was originally built as a type of rectangular tomb known today as a mastaba (an Arabic word meaning "bench") before being expanded into a step pyramid. Ancient inscriptions indicate that Imhotep directed the step pyramid's construction.

Construction and Architecture of the Step Pyramid of Djoser

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Step Pyramid at Saqqara
The Step Pyramid of Djoser is comprised of six terraced levels — four built above ground, and two larger ones added later by excavating the ground underneath the original four. The pyramid is 200-feet-high and has a rectangular base that measures 597 feet from north to south and 304 feet from east to west. It was larger when it was built but weather and scavengers taking blocks have reduced its size.

A wall buttressed with reedlike columns, surrounds the step pyramid complex. Located on the south side of wall is an entrance colonnade and thirteen false entrances (immovable doors with great hinges) through which it is said the pharaoh's spirits could pass. There are also several false temples, which are filled with rubble instead of tombs. These false temples were constructed for similar reasons as the paper money and cardboard microwave ovens and motorcycles burned at Chinese funerals today. "They worked in the afterlife," said one archeologist, "precisely because they could not work in this one."

Archeologists believe it took hundreds of men about 35 years to build the step pyramid and the structures around it. Between the false entrances and the pyramid there is a large courtyard. A smaller ceremonial courtyard is situated in front of the deity chapels on the east side. There are also ruins of a Funerary Temple, other courtyards, an entrance hall, and a small temple. Mastabas (tombs) of lesser rulers surround the step pyramid, and the pyramid itself is believed to have been built on top of a mastaba built earlier. The tomb of the king is in a shaft below the pyramid.

The stones for the Saqqara pyramid was quarried several miles away on the other side of the Nile from a limestone cliff at Tufa. Ships carried the stone to the banks of the Nile, where a work force of men hauled the stones on sledges, lubricated with oil, to the building site where "master carvers shaped each block and put it in place.”

Vertical Shaft in Djoser’s Step Pyramid

Taylor Nicioli of CNN wrote: Researchers previously have not determined a clear purpose for the vertical shaft within the pyramid of Djoser. Some later pyramids, such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, have shafts believed to have been used for ventilation, and it’s possible the internal shaft could have also been intended for lighting or to relieve pressure on the chamber beneath, Egyptologist Dr. David Jeffreys, a retired senior lecturer in Egyptian archaeology at the University College London, said. But as the first of its kind, the Step Pyramid was an experimental structure that is believed to have started out as a mastaba (a flat tomb) and was built up, so it remains unclear exactly what its internal features were intended for, he added. [Source Taylor Nicioli, CNN, August 6, 2024]

The shaft within the Step Pyramid is connected to a 200-meter-long (656-foot-long) underground tunnel that connects to another vertical shaft outside the pyramid. The external shaft might then connect to a hypothesized water transportation needed for the hydraulic system describe below. The internal shaft begins directly below the pyramid near the center where a granite box sits with a plug at its base. This box is more widely believed to be the burial chamber of King Djoser, but some scientists argue it could have been built for the purpose of opening and closing the hydraulic lift, allowing the water to fill the shaft when in use.

Why Was the Step Pyramid of Djoser Built?

Owen Jarus wrote in Live Science: Researchers are still unsure exactly why pharaohs chose to use pyramids for their burials. One reason may have been to provide added protection against tomb robbers. In earlier times robbers plundered pharaohs' low-rising mastaba tombs by burrowing in from the top, Egyptologist Reg Clark wrote in his book "Securing Eternity: Ancient Egyptian Tomb Protection from Prehistory to the Pyramids". The step pyramid, with its six layers on top of each other, would have offered protection from this method, Clark wrote. "Many Egyptologists have suggested that the step pyramid formed a kind of 'stairway' for the king to ascend to the sky, but I suggest that [it was built] because it is the most efficient and economical way to create a virtual 'hemisphere' of protection over the underlying substructure," Clark told Live Science.[Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science, August 30, 2023]

Another important innovation was that stone was used to build the step pyramid, whereas the mastabas used by previous pharaoh were made of mudbrick; this was important as stone is harder to infiltrate, Clark noted. Religious reasons may also have been an important factor. Miroslav Verner, a professor emeritus of Egyptology at Charles University in the Czech Republic, told Live Science that "probably religious reasons were behind" the idea to build pyramids.

When Djoser came to power, the influence of the sun cult and the sun god Ra (also spelled Ra) was increasing, Verner wrote in his book "The Pyramids: The Archaeology and History of Egypt's Iconic Monuments" (American University in Cairo Press, 2021). The sun cult's growing influence may have led to a desire to build structures that reached higher into the sky. Verner noted that a passage from a text dating back around 4,400 years said "may the sky make the sunlight strong for you, may you rise up to the sky as the Eye of Re" (translation by Raymond Faulkner).

One question is whether a growing interest in the sun cult brought about the construction of the step pyramid, or whether the construction of the step pyramid brought about an increasing interest in the sun cult. "What came first, the egg or the chicken?" Massimiliano Nuzzolo, a researcher at the Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, told Live Science. Nuzzolo thinks that interest in the solar cult grew after the construction of the step pyramid. "This incredible architectural enterprise may have also affected and somehow even pushed for a change in the religious ideology, eventually reflected on a major emphasis on the solar aspects of the kingship," Nuzzolo said.

The Old Kingdom ended when the central administration collapsed in the late Sixth Dynasty. This collapse seems to have resulted at least in part from climatic conditions that caused a period of low Nile waters and great famine. The kings would have been discredited by the famine.

Was a the Step Pyramid of Djoser Built with a Hydraulic Lift

A study published in PLOS ONE in July 2024 suggests that the Step Pyramid of Djoser was built using a hydraulic lift, making such hydraulic systems much older than previously. The author of the study say the landscape, waterways, and interior architecture of the pyramid all point to the hydraulic system. Tim Newcomb wrote in Popular Mechanics: The hydraulic-powered mechanism could have maneuvered the oversized stone blocks forming the pyramid, starting from the ground up. The research team says the Step Pyramid’s internal architecture is consistent with a hydraulic elevation mechanism. By lifting the stones from the interior of the pyramid in what the authors call a “volcano fashion,” the water pressure from the hydraulic system could have pushed the blocks into place. [Source Tim Newcomb, Popular Mechanics, July 26, 2024]

The team believes that based on the mapping of nearby watersheds, one of the massive—and yet unexplained—Saqqara structures, known as the Gisr el-Mudir enclosure, has the features of a check dam with the intent to trap sediment and water. The scientists say the topography beyond the dam suggests a possible temporary lake west of the Djoser complex, with water flow surrounding it in a moat-like design. As a Nile tributary fed the area, a dam could have created a temporary lake, potentially linking the river to a “Dry Moat” around the Djoser site, helping move materials and serving the hydraulic needs. “The ancient architects likely raised the stones from the pyramid center in a volcano fashion using the sediment-free water from the Dry Moat’s south section,” the authors write.

In one section of the moat, the team found that a monumental linear rock-cut structure consisting of successive, deep-trench compartments combines the technical requirement of a water treatment facility—and a design still often seen in modern-day water treatment plants—by including a settling basin, retention basin, and purification system. “Together, the Gisr el-Mudir and the Dry Moat’s inner south section work as a unified hydraulics system that improves water quality and regulates flow for practical purposes and human needs,” the authors write. The team believes the water available in the area was sufficient to meet the needs of the project.

Taylor Nicioli of CNN wrote: A hydraulic lift device would have floated the heavy stones up through the middle of the step pyramid using stored water. The water also would have flowed into the Gisr el-Mudir — a rectangular limestone structure that is a massive 650 by 350 meters (2,133 feet by 1,148 feet) — which would have acted as a check dam. A complex water treatment system drawing upon local resources would have allowed for a water-powered elevator within the pyramid’s internal vertical shaft. Water from ancient streams flowed into a system of trenches and tunnels that surrounded the Step Pyramid and some type of float would have raised the heavy stones up the middle of the pyramid, according to the study. Critics of the theory such as Jeffreys say that there was probably not enough water to support such a system and it is more plausible that ramps were used to lift the stones. [Source Taylor Nicioli, CNN, August 6, 2024]

Restoration of the Pyramid of Djoser

In 1926, French architect Jean Philippe Lauer was the first person to excavate the pyramid. When the tunnels beneath the pyramid were first explored they were tiled in blue, to symbolize Djoser's afterlife. Lauer turned 94 years old in 2020 and has established the museum at the site. [Source James Pasley, Business Insider, March 8, 2020]

The Pyramid of Djoser reopened in March 2020 after a 14 year, $6.6 million restoration. Over centuries its condition deteriorated due to the effects of time, neglect, fierce winds, and serious damage sustained in a 1992 earthquake that weakened its foundations

According to Business Insider: In 2006, the Egyptian government announced it was going to restore it. A British engineering firm was hired, but it wasn't a simple task. To keep the pyramid from collapsing inwards, giant self-inflating airbags filled with liquid were inserted inside. They had been developed by Peter James, a structural engineer, who first designed the airbags to absorb explosions while defusing bombs in Afghanistan. To keep the pyramid together, steel rods were threaded through the steps diagonally in a way to ensure they weren't visible.

Despite the hard work and advanced technology, the restoration was put on hold for nearly two years, from 2011 to the end of 2013, over security concerns. Egypt was enduring uprisings that ended with the country's leader Hosni Mubarak being removed from office. On top of that, controversies marred the rebuild. Different Egyptian NGOs claimed that the company working on its restoration had damaged it. Egypt's former Minister of Antiquities, Mamdouh al-Damati tried to dispel the rumors in 2014. UNESCO experts criticized the restoration, so additional work was done that the organization later approved. The restoration was finally finished in 2020.It took 14 years, and cost nearly $6. 6 million.

Tourist can go inside Djoser’s Pyramid, whose subterranean structure has been described as "a real wonder. " There are just over 3 miles of labyrinths underneath the pyramid. The workers built false doorways, extra chambers, and dead ends to confuse grave robbers. The burial chamber and sarcophagus of King Djoser, which is 90 feet below the surface, was open to the public. New lighting had been added during the restoration, but from up above it didn't look too impressive. Tourists can also climb the staggered sides of the pyramid.

Other Early Pyramids

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Bent Pyramid of Dashoor
Pyramid of Unas is located to the south of the Step Pyramid of Djoser. Built by the last of the Dynasty V pharaohs, it is noted for its tomb chamber, whose walls are inscribed with what is now known as the "Pyramid Texts" — an important ancient Egyptian text and the earliest known example of decorative tomb painting. The ceiling in the chamber is decorated with stars for royal mummy to look at. Next to this pyramid is the Persian Shafts, a series of 80-foot-deep tomb chambers with colorful wall paintings. The Tomb of to at Saqqara features a painted limestone relief of to watching a hippopotamus hunt and cattle being forded across a river.

The Pyramid of Pepi I contains the most complete set of tomb texts in Egypt. Dating to 2300 B.C., they took 20 years to reassemble. In the tombs of Princess Idut, Maya and Teti there is evidence of images being erased and replaced with new images, which some scholars believe to be evidence of murder.

Maidum (40 miles south of Giza) contains the now-ruined Snefru pyramid. This step pyramid once was 306 feet high and is regarded as link between step pyramids and the pyramids. The steps created a 51̊ angle of incline, the same as the pyramids at Giza. The Snefru pyramid mostly like collapsed before it was finished. Others believed it was completed and its stones were used to make Greco-Roman structures at a nearby oasis.

Snefru's Pyramid

The pharaoh Sneferu (r. 2575 to 2551 B.C.) built the first true pyramids (pyramids with flat sides) at Dahshur. These consisted of the Bent Pyramid (so named because of its unusual angle) and the Red Pyramid (named after its color). [Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science, August 30, 2023]

Dahshour (15 miles south of Cairo, west of the town of Dahshour) is a two mile long area in the southern part of the necropolis of Memphis. For many years this was a military area and tourists needed a special permission to visit it. In 1996, a group of five large pyramids, second in size on to the Pyramids of Giza, at Dahshour where opened to the public. The pyramids at Dahshour are among the world's oldest. In addition to Snefru's Pyramid, Bent Pyramid, and Red Pyramid, the site also contains gray granite remains of a forth pyramid and the white limestone dust of a fifth.

Snefru's Pyramid (at Dahshour) is one three pyramids built in 2600 B.C. to honor the pharaoh Snefru, the father of Cheops, the builder of the largest pyramid in Giza. Two of Snefru’s pyramids are in Dahshur. The original cedar beams from Lebanon can still be seen in one of them. One pyramid referred to as Snefru's Pyramid is located on the edge of lush irrigated land. It is 341 feet height and is much broader than the pyramids built later at Giza. The tomb was looted 4,500 years ago and a wooden wedge used by the thieves to pry open the three-and-a-half ton granite sarcophagus lid is still in place. One archeologist called it "an inside job" because the "robbers knew exactly how to get in here."

Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid

Bent Pyramid (at Dahshour) is the nickname of the other Dahshour pyramid, which has a rhomboidal shape. Built for Snefru, it is 344 feet high and measures 620 feet at the base. The top half of the pyramid inclines at an angle of 43̊ while the bottom half slopes at 54̊. No one has convincingly provided an explanation for the pyramid's shape. The angle was changed, some scholars believe, in the middle of construct to keep it from crumbling like the third, now-ruined Snefru pyramid in Maidum. It once was a 306-foot-high step pyramid with 51̊ angle of incline, the same as the pyramids at Giza. Others believe than angle was changed after the base began sinking in clay and cracked and forced the angles of the sides to be changed. The Bent Pyramid has two entrances and most of the original outer stones are still in place. Inside are cedarwood beams imported from Lebanon that are still in relatively good condition after more than 4,000 years.

Red Pyramid (at Dahshour, north of the Bent Pyramid) get its color from the iron in underlying blocks of local limestone now exposed. The scholar Daniel Boorstin wrote it "was the earliest tomb known to have been completed as a true pyramid. It seems flat compared with the larger pyramids in the Giza group...The builders cautiously inclined this pyramid at an angle (43 degrees and 26 minutes) almost the same as the upper half of the bent Pyramid. Their caution was justified, for the basic structure has withstood the millennia. But the gentle slope made it easy quarry for stone robbers. Piece by piece over the centuries they removed the original covering of dressed white limestone, which once gave it a dazzling elegance, leaving it now with a distinctive color never intended by the architects."

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Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, The Louvre, The British Museum, The Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Text Sources: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Tour Egypt, Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com; Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated August 2024