New Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.) OF Ancient Egypt: Dynasties 18-20 | Middle East And North Africa

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NEW KINGDOM (1539 to 1075 B.C.)

Amenhotep III and Sobek
The New Kingdom was the golden age of Egypt and the era of the great pharaohs of Egypt. Culture and the arts blossomed, great temples and colossal monuments were raised, great works of art were created, prosperity reigned. The New Kingdom capital was at Thebes (present-day Luxor), where the great temples of Karnak and Luxor were built and the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings.

Catharine H. Roehrig of the Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote: “Late in the Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1640–1550 B.C.), the Theban rulers (Dynasty 17) began to drive the Hyksos kings (Dynasty 15) from the Delta. This was finally accomplished by Ahmose I, who reunited Egypt, ushering in the New Kingdom—the third great era of Egyptian culture. Ahmose's successors in Dynasty 18 conducted military campaigns that extended Egypt's influence in the Near East and established Egyptian control of Nubia to the fourth cataract. As a result, the New Kingdom pharaohs commanded unimaginable wealth, much of which they lavished on their gods, especially Amun-Re of Thebes, whose cult temple at Karnak was augmented by succeeding generations of rulers and filled with votive statues commissioned by kings and courtiers alike. [Source: Catharine H. Roehrig, Department of Egyptian Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2000, metmuseum.org ]

The New Kingdom began in 1539 B.C. after the Hyksos — foreign invaders — were expelled from Lower Egypt and lasted to the death of Ramses IX around 1050 B.C. It embraced the 18th, 19th and 20th Dynasties, with 32 pharaohs. During this time Egypt was a superpower in the Middle East and had a populations of 1 million to 1.5 million. The pharaohs, for the most part, resided in Memphis (near Cairo) and visited Thebes — which was primarily a religious center — to perform rituals.

During the New Kingdom, the Egyptian empire extended southward to the land of Punt (Somalia) and the 5th Cataract near present-day Khartoum, Sudan, and eastward across the Middle East past Palestine and Syria to the Euphrates River of Mesopotamia. The powerful Hittites and Mitanni in the north at various times were both enemies and allies. Assyria and Babylon sent tributes.

Famed Egyptologist Zahi Hawass told Smithsonian magazine, “This period was like a fantastic play with magnificent actors and actresses. Look at the beautiful Nefertiti and her six daughters. King Tut married one of them. Look at her husband, the heretic monarch Akhenaten; his domineering father, Amenhotep III and his powerful mother Queen Tyre. Look at the people around them, Maya, the treasurer; Ay the power behind the throne; and Horemheb, the ruthless general.”

Websites on Ancient Egypt: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Discovering Egypt discoveringegypt.com; BBC History: Egyptians bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians ; Ancient History Encyclopedia on Egypt ancient.eu/egypt; Digital Egypt for Universities. Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics. ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt ; British Museum: Ancient Egypt ancientegypt.co.uk; Egypt’s Golden Empire pbs.org/empires/egypt; Metropolitan Museum of Art www.metmuseum.org ; Oriental Institute Ancient Egypt (Egypt and Sudan) Projects ; Egyptian Antiquities at the Louvre in Paris louvre.fr/en/departments/egyptian-antiquities; KMT: A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt kmtjournal.com; Ancient Egypt Magazine ancientegyptmagazine.co.uk; Egypt Exploration Society ees.ac.uk ; Amarna Project amarnaproject.com; Egyptian Study Society, Denver egyptianstudysociety.com; The Ancient Egypt Site ancient-egypt.org; Abzu: Guide to Resources for the Study of the Ancient Near East etana.org; Egyptology Resources fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk

Luxor

20120211-Amenhote Luxor Temple_of_.jpg
Amenhote Luxor Temple
Luxor (310 miles south of Cairo) is an Arab name that means "City of Palaces." Located on a sweeping bend in the Nile, it boasts some of most famous temples in Egypt and is the second largest draw in Egypt after Cairo and the Pyramids, Luxor is home to the greatest concentration of ancient monuments in Egypt: the magnificent temples of Karnak, Luxor and Hatshepsut , the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, the tomb of Tutankhamen, and the Colossi of Memnon, the giant broken statues of Ramses the Great that inspired Shelley's poem “Ozymandias”.

In post -Egyptian ancient times, Luxor was called Thebes, a Greek which means "the one hundred gated city." From 2,100 to 750 B.C., Thebes was the religious capital of Pharonic Egypt and the center of Egyptian power. It embraced the area occupied by Karnak and Luxor. The priests who worked out of the temples became so powerful they were regarded as a threat to the pharaoh.

Thebes emerged as the main power center of Egypt at the dawn of the Middle Kingdom (2125 to 1520 B.C.) and became the capital of Egypt after the Hyksos were kicked out of Egypt. During the New Kingdom (1539 to 1075 B.C.) it was the center of Egypt. The pharaohs resided here and perhaps 1 million people lived in the area. The largest and most spectacular building were built during the reigns of Amenhotep III and Ramses II in the 14th and 13th century B.C. By Greco-Roman times it was already major tourist attraction.

The East Bank of the Nile in Luxor is where the pharaoh lived, temples were built and the city that served the pharaoh grew up. The West Bank of the Nile in Luxor is where many New Kingdom pharaohs, their wives, their children, important priest and nobles, and even ordinary workers were placed in tombs that prepared for their journey to next world. There are a few temples and monuments here. Most of them are associated with dead.

New Kingdom Pharaohs

New Kingdom
ca. 1550–1070 B.C.
Dynasty 18, ca. 1550–1295 B.C.
Ahmose: ca. 1550–1525 B.C.
Amenhotep I: ca. 1525–1504 B.C.
Thutmose I: ca. 1504–1492 B.C.
Thutmose II: ca. 1492–1479 B.C.
Thutmose III: ca. 1479–1425 B.C.
Hatshepsut (as regent): ca. 1479–1473 B.C.
Hatshepsut: ca. 1473–1458 B.C.
Amenhotep II: ca. 1427–1400 B.C.
Thutmose IV: ca. 1400–1390 B.C.
Amenhotep III: ca. 1390–1352 B.C.
Amenhotep IV: ca. 1353–1349 B.C.
Akhenaten: ca. 1349–1336 B.C.
Neferneferuaton: ca. 1338–1336 B.C.
Smenkhkare: ca. 1336 B.C.
Tutankhamun: ca. 1336–1327 B.C.
Aya: ca. 1327–1323 B.C.
Haremhab: ca. 1323–1295 B.C. [Source: Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2002]

Dynasty 19, ca. 1295–1186 B.C.
Ramesses I: ca. 1295–1294 B.C.
Seti I: ca. 1294–1279 B.C.
Ramesses II: ca. 1279–1213 B.C.
Merneptah: ca. 1213–1203 B.C.
Amenmesse: ca. 1203–1200 B.C.
Seti II: ca. 1200–1194 B.C.
Siptah: ca. 1194–1188 B.C.
Tawosret: ca. 1188–1186 B.C.

Karnak King's list drawing 3

Dynasty 20, ca. 1186–1070 B.C.
Sethnakht: ca. 1186–1184 B.C.
Ramesses III: ca. 1184–1153 B.C.
Ramesses IV: ca. 1153–1147 B.C.
Ramesses V: ca. 1147–1143 B.C.
Ramesses VI: ca. 1143–1136 B.C.
Ramesses VII: ca. 1136–1129 B.C.
Ramesses VIII: ca. 1129–1126 B.C.
Ramesses IX: ca. 1126–1108 B.C.
Ramesses X: ca. 1108–1099 B.C.
Ramesses XI: ca. 1099–1070 B.C.
Hight Priests (HP) of Amun ca. 1080–1070 B.C.
HP Herihor: ca. 1080–1074 B.C.
HP Paiankh: ca. 1074–1070 B.C.

Art and Culture During the New Kingdom

Catharine H. Roehrig of the Metropolitan Museum of Art wrote: “New Kingdom pharaohs commanded unimaginable wealth, much of which they lavished on their gods, especially Amun-Re of Thebes, whose cult temple at Karnak was augmented by succeeding generations of rulers and filled with votive statues commissioned by kings and courtiers alike. [Source: Catharine H. Roehrig, Department of Egyptian Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2000, metmuseum.org \^/]

“Although the rulers of Dynasty 19 established an administrative capital near their home in the Delta, Thebes remained a cultural and religious center. The pharaohs built their mortuary temples here and were buried in huge rock-cut tombs decorated with finely executed paintings or painted reliefs illustrating religious texts concerned with the afterlife. A town was established in western Thebes for the artists who created these tombs. At this site (Deir el-Medina), they left a wealth of information about life in an ancient Egyptian community of artisans and craftsmen. \^/

“Known especially for monumental architecture and statuary honoring the gods and pharaohs, the New Kingdom, a period of nearly 500 years of political stability and economic prosperity, also produced an abundance of artistic masterpieces created for use by nonroyal individuals.” \^/

War, Trade and Expansion During the New Kingdom

According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “The 2nd Intermediate Period came to a close with the defeat of the Hyksos by Ahmose I. After securing Egypt's northern borders, Ahmose I instituted internal changes. He created a the position of Viceroy for Kush, Nubia. This Viceroy answered to no one but the Pharaoh. The wars of this period were fought with the powerful Near East empires, such as the Hittites, the Mitanni and the Assyrians, all of which were neighbors of Egypt. The Mitanni occupied an area around Nahrina. The Assyrians were on the eastern border and the Hittites occupied the land to the west. Also during this time period, Ramesses III fought against a coalition of wandering tribes called the Sea Peoples. This saw the borders of Egypt expand in the north as far as the Euphrates River and down to the 4th cataract in the south. These borders would then retract until Egypt was nothing more than the Nile Valley extending down to the 2nd cataract. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]

“It was Tuthmosis I who extended the borders of Egypt to their farthest extent. He and his grandson, Tuthmosis III, then fought many campaigns to hold onto these borders. Later in the 18th Dynasty, a general of the army was made Pharaoh in hope that he would be able to save Egypt from being destroyed. His success brought about the 19th Dynasty. The 20th Dynasty saw some of the last great Pharaohs of Egypt. Ramesses II is known to have signed a mutual defense treaty with the Hittites, a powerful neighbor. This was a new landmark in diplomacy. Trade during this period brought new items and the exploitation of Kush made Egypt rich. From Kush came things like gold, ivory, ebony, cattle, gums, resins and semi-precious stones.” +\

Akhenaten’s “internal reforms caused ill feelings against those in powerful positions and allowed Egypt's foreign interests to be lost. Their ally during his reign, the Mitanni, were destroyed and their northern holdings captured by foreign powers. He was finally removed from the throne by those whom he had offended. The New Kingdom came to an end during the reign of Ramesses XI. Late in his reign civil war broke out and the viceroy of Kush was called upon to suppress Thebes. The viceroy was successful until the king's general Herihor drove the viceroy out of Thebes. The viceroy later came to rule Kush as an independent kingdom and it was forever lost to Egypt. +\

Great Dynasties of the New Kingdom

Thutmose III

Dr Aidan Dodson of the University of Bristol wrote: “18th Dynasty: Perhaps the height of Egyptian wealth and power came between 1550 and 1290 B.C. The dynasty began with the expulsion of the Palestinian Hyksos rulers from the north of Egypt by King Ahmose I-an event that may have inspired the Biblical story of the Exodus. Carrying forward the momentum of this act, subsequent rulers, in particular Thutmose III, established an empire of client states in Syria-Palestine, and dominions stretching towards the heart of Africa. War booty and lively international trade founded on Egypt's highly productive gold mines made Egypt a major world player. [Source: Dr Aidan Dodson, Egyptologist, University of Bristol, BBC, February 17, 2011 |::|]

“Around 1350 B.C., however, King Akhenaten (formerly known as Amenhotep IV-see above) turned Egypt on its head by abolishing all the nation's gods, and replacing them with a single sun-god, the Aten. The new faith was accompanied by a radical new art-style, as seen in the statuette above, currently owned by the Louvre. The cult of Aten, however, barely survived the death of its patron. Within a few years, orthodoxy had been re-established and Akhenaten's very dynasty had died out, leaving the throne to a series of generals, the last of whom, Ramesses I, was the founder of a new 19th Dynasty. |::|

“19th Dynasty: After the upheavals of the late 18th Dynasty, the new royal house combined a return to traditional values with a number of innovations. Tradition is seen in the building of temples to the ancient gods and the repair of monuments damaged during the iconoclastic Akhenaten's reign, and also in an aggressive foreign policy. Under Ramesses II (1279-1212 B.C.), this culminated in the great battle against the Hittites at Qadesh in Syria. The long-term strategic stalemate that followed the battle, however, resulted in a peace treaty in 1258 that left the two powers the best of friends for the rest of the century. |::|

“Meanwhile, innovation was seen in the prominence granted to depictions of members of the royal family in public monuments, a practice that perhaps reached its peak at Abu Simbel, where the dominant figure in the smaller of the two temples seen here (on the right) was not the pharaoh, but Queen Nefertiry (not to be confused with the earlier Queen Nefertiti). However, the dynasty ended in chaos, with rebellion within the royal house, culminating in the end of the dynasty amid civil war.” |::|

Eighteenth Dynasty 1550 – 1295 B.C.

Queen Hatshephut

The 18th Dynasty marked the beginning of the New Kingdom. The Theban kings expelled the Hyksos and the Egyptian army expanded the borders of the kingdom into Palestine and Syria. The administration was reformed into a dynamic merit-based system for royal appointments. A powerful empire was created that ushered in new ideas and generated immense wealth for the pharaohs, [Source: Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com]

According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “In the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Egypt was a unified and wealthy state ruled by a god-king. It had a semitropical climate, creating a large agricultural surplus. Papyrus grew wild and was used for building materials, food and paper. Even the desert provided useful goods such as salt, natron, other minerals, semiprecious stones and gold. Egypt had a highly organized government that was run by the scribal class, who were organized and carried out the details of the business of the state. They knew how to read and write and also had knowledge of the specific position they were to inherit, such as knowledge in agriculture. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]

“The majority of the people were farmers. During the period of inundation, the three months when the fields were flooded, they participated in corvee. The farmers became a national labor force, which built and maintained large-scale public buildings. There was also a smaller group of nomadic cattle herders. Families were the basic social unit in Ancient Egypt, with groups of families forming villages. The people of Ancient Egypt followed a hereditary calling, and the whole family shared in the work. The army was the only place for people to step out of the caste system and achieve importance. The horse drawn chariot was also introduced during this period. +\

Rise of Imperial Egypt 1570-1436 B.C.

According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “Important events occurring during this time period are the capture of Avaris, the Hyksos stronghold near Tanis and the expulsion of the foreigner from Egypt. The policy of safeguarding frontiers through large-scale raiding expeditions was also developed. By the time Tuthmosis III became ruler, Egypt was mainly a prosperous and well organized state. He fought problems in the North and made a rich empire in Palestine and Syria. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]

On the 18th Dynasty, Dr Aidan Dodson of the University of Bristol wrote: “Perhaps the height of Egyptian wealth and power came between 1550 and 1290 B.C. The dynasty began with the expulsion of the Palestinian Hyksos rulers from the north of Egypt by King Ahmose I-an event that may have inspired the Biblical story of the Exodus. Carrying forward the momentum of this act, subsequent rulers, in particular Thutmose III, established an empire of client states in Syria-Palestine, and dominions stretching towards the heart of Africa. War booty and lively international trade founded on Egypt's highly productive gold mines made Egypt a major world player [Source: Dr Aidan Dodson, Egyptologist, University of Bristol, BBC, February 17, 2011 |::|]

Golden Age of Imperial Egypt 1436-1358 B.C.

Tutanchamun mask

“During this period, Thebes became the main residence city of Egypt, which advanced the fortunes of Amen the city god. Amen attained a position of great wealth and influence. Under Tuthmosis IV, Aten, a new god, appears and his cult becomes a fashionable court religion. Amarna Revolution 1375-1358 B.C. +\

“Amen-hetep and his queen Nefert-iti are fanatically devoted to Aten, and Amen-hetep changes his name to Akhenaten. He also founds a new city for Aten at the present day El-Amarna and moves his court there. Other cults were discouraged and changes in the Aten doctrine favor monotheism. Problems begin to occur during his reign. There is unrest in the northern empire, which leads to a reduced flow of valuable tribute and disgruntled soldiers. Temples were closed putting many out of work. Also, forbidding sacrifices and rituals demoralized people and took away the purpose to every day activities. The people did not like the new religion being imposed on them.

Nineteenth Dynasty (1295 – 1186 B.C.)

The Nineteenth Dynasty began with the reign of Ramesses I and continued through the reigns of Seti I, Ramesses II, and Merneptah. At the start of this Dynasty Ramesses I and Seti I continued with Horemheb’s (Eighteenth Dynasty) work of picking up the pieces after the disruptions caused by Akenaten’s rule. The restoration of Egypt’s temples and gods and the authority of Egypt in Nubia and western Asia were given a high priority and achieved. Two notable product of these efforts were the restoration of the national shrine of Amun in Nubia and the construction of a temple to Osiris at Abydos. Exactly what occurred at the end of the Nineteenth Dynasty is not clear but it is believed that the country fell into decline and near anarchy. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]

Ramses II at Abu Simbel

On the 19th Dynasty, Dr Aidan Dodson of the University of Bristol wrote: “After the upheavals of the late 18th Dynasty, the new royal house combined a return to traditional values with a number of innovations. Tradition is seen in the building of temples to the ancient gods and the repair of monuments damaged during the iconoclastic Akhenaten's reign, and also in an aggressive foreign policy. Under Ramesses II (1279-1212 B.C.), this culminated in the great battle against the Hittites at Qadesh in Syria. The long-term strategic stalemate that followed the battle, however, resulted in a peace treaty in 1258 that left the two powers the best of friends for the rest of the century.” [Source: Dr Aidan Dodson, Egyptologist, University of Bristol, BBC, February 17, 2011 |::|]

Mark Millmore wrote in discoveringegypt.com: “Seti I’s reign looked for its model to the mid-18th dynasty and was a time of considerable prosperity. He restored countless monuments. His temple at Abydos exhibits some of the finest carved wall reliefs. His son Ramses II is the major figure of the dynasty. Around this time the Hittites had become a dominant Asiatic power. An uneasy balance of power developed between the two kingdoms, which was punctuated by wars and treaties. By now Egypt was an ethnically pluralistic society and this is reflected in a diversity of artistic expression. Unfortunately the tide of history was turning and Ramses son, Merenptah had to struggle to maintain Egypt’s prestige. Kings during the 19th Dynasty were: Ramses I 1295-1294; Seti I 1294-1279; Ramses II 1279-1213; Merenptah 1213-1203; Amenmessu 1203-1200; Sety II 1200-1194; Saptah 1194-1188; Tausret 1188-1186 [Source: Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com ^^^]

Twentieth Dynasty (1186 – 1069 B.C.) and the End of the New Kingdom

The Twentieth Dynasty began with Setnakht who ruled for only a few years but restored order after a period of chaos. His son Ramses III gave Egypt a final moment of glory before Egypt fell into a period of decline from which it would never recover. Ramses III was by followed a succession of kings named Ramses, perhaps “a vain attempt to recapture past glories.” Twentieth Dynasty rulers:Setnakht 1186-1184 B.C.; Ramses III 1184-1153 B.C.; Ramses IV 1153-1147 B.C.; Ramses V 1147-1143 B.C.; Ramses VI 1143-1136 B.C.; Ramses VII 1136-1129 B.C.; Ramses VIII 1129-1126 B.C.; Ramses IX 1126-1108 B.C.; Ramses X 1108-1099 B.C.; Ramses XI 1099-1069. [Source: Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com]

African products presented to the pharaoh

The New Kingdom went into a decline after Ramses II's death. Ramses was succeeded by Merenptah, his 60-year-old 13th son. He was a mediocre pharaoh. By the time Ramses III came to power, the kingdom was in disarray and was beginning to come apart. Harem ladies attempted to assassinate Ramses III around 1200 B.C. but failed. Ramses V died of small pox in 1151 B.C. Pockmarks are clearly visible on his unwrapped mummy. After the chaotic reign of Ramses XI (1115-1086 B.C. ) the long-unified Egyptian state broke apart. The burials at the Valley of the Kings ended abruptly following his death.

Pierre Grandet, a French Egyptologist, wrote: “The origins of the 20th Dynasty remain obscure, their only indications being provided by the Elephantine Stela. After several years of political and social unrest, Sethnakhte seized power as first king of the 20th Dynasty. He was succeeded by his son Ramesses III, who is considered to be the last great king of the New Kingdom. His reign is marked by a long list of achievements, including an impressive building program, military successes, and a number of expeditions. [Source: Pierre Grandet, 2014, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 2013 escholarship.org ]

Ramses III was the last great pharaoh, Ramses V died of small pox in 1151 B.C. Pockmarks are clearly visible on his unwrapped mummy. After the chaotic reign of Ramses XI (1115-1086 B.C. ) the long-unified Egyptian state broke apart. The burials at the Valley of the Kings ended abruptly following his death. After the death of Ramesses XI, the throne passed to Smendes, a northern relative of the High Priest of Amun. Smendes' reign (ca. 1070–1044 B.C.) initiated the Third Intermediate Period — a 350 year span, according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art” of “politically divided rule and diffused power.”

After Ramses III’s death Egypt began having economic problems and missed the boat with Iron Age — which began around 1200 B.C. and among other things made stronger and more powerful weapons possible — because it lacked sources of iron. Under a succession of weak leaders, Egypt fragmented and weakened. There were disputes between officials and governors and friction between the north and south. The priestly caste became so powerful it was able to take control of the government. But this occurred at a time when strong military was needed to fend off threats from Assyrians and Persians. Later Greeks and Romans would lay claim to the region. ^^^

Mycenaean-Egyptian Relations

Stefan Pfeiffer of Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg wrote: “After the collapse of the Minoan culture, the Mycenaeans—who, like the Minoans, were located in “islands in the midst of the Great Green,” as the Egyptians called the Aegean—filled the economic gap left by Minoan traders. The earliest Egyptian attestation of the Mycenaeans dates to the 42nd year of Thutmose III’s reign. The transition from the Minoan to the Mycenaean culture may be reflected in Theban Tomb 100 (of the high official Rekhmira, who served at the end of Thutmose III’s reign and into that of Amenhotep II), in which an Aegean tribute carrier is depicted. The wall painting is a palimpsest: Originally, the depicted person was dressed in a typical Minoan loin-cloth; later on, this garment was modified to a multicolored kilt, which is generally attributed to Mycenaean origins. However, it is noteworthy that the interpretation of both garments as Minoan or Mycenaean, respectively, is nowadays questioned. [Source: Stefan Pfeiffer, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 2013 escholarship.org ]

Mycenaean funeral mask

“Mycenaean cities are mentioned in the geographical lists of the House of Millions of years of Amenhotep III, proving knowledge of the Aegean world in Egypt. There were intense contacts in the time of Akhenaten, as is attested by Mycenaean pottery sherds dating to his reign. Mycenaean pottery is also found in post-Amarna times (for example, at Pi-Ramesse, the capital city built by Ramesses II): like their forefathers, Egyptian potters tried to copy the form and style of Minoan pottery, now aimed to imitate Mycenaean ware, even in faience or calcite (Egyptian alabaster).

“The view that post-Amarna contacts between the two worlds were mainly based on indirect trade relations via the Levant is nowadays being questioned; there are in fact hints to an exchange of individuals and ideas. What can be said is that the Mycenaeans, like the Minoans, were highly interested in Egyptian goods. Especially in Mycenae itself, many Egyptian objects bear witness to close trade relations. Moreover, Mycenae seems to have served as a “gateway community” for the import of Egyptian goods to the whole Aegean world.

“Summing up, it is not easy to determine the intensity of relations between the two cultures. It appears prudent to assume that in the Mycenaean Period (as well as in the Minoan) durations of close contacts alternated with those of merely sporadic contacts due to wars or natural catastrophes.”

Mycenaeans, New Kingdom Egypt, and the Hittites All Brought By the Luwians?

Colin Barras wrote in New Scientist: “The Trojan War was a grander event than even Homer would have us believe. The famous conflict may have been one of the final acts in what one archaeologist has controversially dubbed “World War Zero” – an event he claims brought the eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age world crashing down 3200 years ago. And the catalyst for the war? A mysterious and arguably powerful civilisation almost entirely overlooked by archaeologists: the Luwians. [Source: Colin Barras, New Scientist, May 12, 2016 +++]

“By the second millennium B.C. civilisation had taken hold throughout the eastern Mediterranean. The Egyptian New Kingdom coexisted with the Hittites of central Anatolia and the Mycenaeans of mainland Greece, among others. In little more than a single generation, they had all collapsed. Was the culprit climate change? Some sort of earthquake storm? Social unrest? Archaeologists can’t seem to agree. +++

“Eberhard Zangger, head of international non-profit, Luwian Studies, based in Zurich, Switzerland, says that’s because one crucial piece of the puzzle is missing. Another powerful civilisation in western Anatolia played a crucial role in the downfall. His investigations of the published literature show that western Anatolia is extraordinarily rich in mineral and metal ore deposits, meaning it’s likely to have been an important region in antiquity. Through studies of satellite imagery, Zangger has also found that the area was densely populated during the Late Bronze Age. Only a handful of the 340 large city-like sites he has identified have been excavated. “Some of these sites are so large you can see them from space,” says Zangger. “There’s so much waiting to be found it’s really just mind-boggling.”

“Hittite texts talk of several petty kingdoms in western Anatolia speaking versions of a common language – Luwian. According to Zangger, that means we can legitimately talk of them as forming a Luwian civilisation in their own right. We know from Hittite texts that the Luwian kingdoms sometimes formed coalitions powerful enough to attack the Hittite empire. Zangger thinks that 3200 years ago the Luwians did just that and destroyed the Hittite Empire. Shortly after the demise of the Hittites, Egyptian texts document an attack force they termed the “Sea People”. Zangger says it makes sense to view these Sea People as the Luwians, continuing their campaign for wealth and power and, in the process, weakening and destabilising the Egyptian New Kingdom. +++

“The Mycenaeans, perhaps anticipating an attack on their territory, formed a grand coalition of their own, says Zangger. They sailed across the Aegean and attacked the Luwians, bringing down their civilisation and destroying its key cities like Troy – events immortalised in Homer’s Iliad. On returning to Greece, however, and in the sudden absence of any other threat, Zangger believes the Mycenaeans squabbled and fell into civil war – events hinted at in Homer’s Odyssey. Their civilisation was the last in the area to collapse. +++

“Zangger says that only such a sequence of events fits with the evidence documented in ancient texts across the eastern Mediterranean, and also explains why the archaeological record shows that almost every large city in the region was destroyed in warfare at the end of the Bronze Age. He sets out his ideas in a new book, and on a website that launches in English today. +++

“So what do other archaeologists make of this idea of a lost Luwian civilisation? Many stopped trying to impose this sort of monolithic cultural identity on ancient peoples decades ago, says Christoph Bachhuber at the University of Oxford. “Archaeologists will need to discover similar examples of monumental art and architecture across western Anatolia and ideally texts from the same sites to support Zangger’s claim of a civilisation,” he says. The textual evidence available is mainly from post-Bronze age and it paints a slightly confusing picture, which could be seen as both supporting and undermining Zangger’s theory, says Ilya Yakubovich, a historical linguist at the Philipp University of Marburg, Germany. +++

Zangger’s broader “World War Zero” narrative is also debatable. “He’s bringing in this idea of ancient international warfare,” says Michael Galaty at Mississippi State University. “Most archaeologists would balk at using such terminology.” Bachhuber calls it “big bombastic storytelling” and points out that today, archaeologists are skeptical that ancient narratives like Homer’s approximate historical truth. +++

Zangger, however, says there are several other ancient accounts of the Trojan War that all tell a similar story to Homer. One, written in the first century AD, even refers to now-lost Egyptian monuments that documented the conflict. Despite these criticisms, though, there is near-universal praise for the fact that Zangger’s ideas will raise the profile of Late Bronze Age archaeological research in long-neglected western Anatolia, which can only benefit the scientific community. “He’s really getting the ball rolling to do larger holistic studies of the area,” says Bachhuber. “I’m actually quite excited that he’s bringing attention to this region.” +++

Did a 300-Year Drought Bring Down the Mycenaeans and Hittites

A 300-year drought may have caused the collapse of several Mediterranean cultures, including the Hittites and the Mycenaeans Tia Ghose wrote for Live Science: “A sharp drop in rainfall may have led to the collapse of several eastern Mediterranean civilizations, including ancient Greece, around 3,200 years ago. The resulting famine and conflict may help explain why the entire Hittite culture vanished from the planet, according to a study published in August 2013 in the journal PLOS ONE. [Source: Tia Ghose, Live Science, August 14, 2013]

“The ancient Hittite empire of Anatolia began a precipitous decline around 1,300 B.C. Around the same time, the Egyptian empire was invaded by marauding sea bandits, called the Sea People, and the ancient Mycenaean culture of Greece collapsed. Over the next 400 years, ancient cities were burned to the ground and were never rebuilt...But the cause of this Bronze Age collapse has been shrouded in mystery. Some archaeologists believed economic hardships caused the demise, while others proposed that massive tsunamis, earthquakes or a mega-drought was the cause.

“Past studies looking for drought typically only found evidence showing it occurred for short periods of time, making it hard to make conclusions about the whole period...Toward that end, David Kaniewski, an archaeologist at the University of Paul Sabatier-Toulouse in France, and his colleagues collected ancient sediment cores from Larnaca Salt Lake, near Hala Sultan Tekke in Cyprus. The lake was once a harbor, but became landlocked thousands of years ago.

“A decline in marine plankton and pollen from marine sea grass revealed that the lake was once a harbor that opened to the sea until around 1450 B.C., when the harbor transformed over 100 years into a landlocked lagoon. Pollen also revealed that by 1200 B.C., agriculture in the area dwindled and didn't rebound until about 850 B.C. “This climate shift caused crop failures, dearth and famine, which precipitated or hastened socioeconomic crises and forced regional human migrations," the authors write in the paper.

“The results bolster the notion that a massive drought caused the Bronze Age collapse, said Brandon Lee Drake, an archaeologist at the University of New Mexico, who was not involved in the study. “It's getting hard to argue that there wasn't as significant change in climate at that time." Famine may have caused the huge migration of people en masse — which may be the reason that the mysterious Sea People who invaded Egypt brought their families along, Drake said. As ancient cultures battled for dwindling resources, they burned the great cities of the day to the ground. In the heart of these dark ages, the ancient Mycenaens lost their writing system, called Linear B, and correspondence between countries slowed to a trickle, Drake said. Ironically, those who suffered through those dark times may not have realized the cause of their misery. “It happened over 200 years. People may not have even recognized the climate was changing, because it was happening so slowly over their lifetime," Drake said.”

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, The Louvre, The British Museum, The Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Text Sources: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Tour Egypt, Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com; Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated September 2018