Sennacherib's Attack on Judah and the Siege of Jerusalem | Middle East And North Africa

SENNACHERIB'S MILITARY CAMPAIGN AGAINST JUDEA IN 701 B.C.

Palace of Sennacherib

Sennacherib (705 to 681 B.C.) expanded Ninevah, built three massive palaces, one with two miles of sculptured inner walls, and led a number of military campaigns. He destroyed Babylon, conquered Sidon in Phoenicia and invaded Judia and led attacks in the Persian Gulf and Mediterranean. His attack on Tyre was thwarted.

Around 700 B.C. several kingdoms in the Levant ceased to pay taxes to the Assyrian king Senncharib. In retribution, he initiated a campaign to re-subjugate the rebelling kingdoms, among them the Kingdom of Judah. After defeating the rebels of Ekron in Philistia, Sennacharib set out to conquer Judah and, on his way to Jerusalem, came across Lachish: the second most important of the Jewish cities. [Source: Wikipedia]

Sennacherib's Prism — a hexagonal clay prism that records the campaigns of Sennacherib written in the Akkadian language in 689 B.C. — details the events of Sennacherib's campaign against Judah, was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh in 1830, and is now stored at the Oriental Institute in Chicago. The Prism dates from about 690 B.C., and its account is taken from an earlier cuneiform inscription dating to 700 B.C..

Sennacherib's Conquest of Judea 701 B.C.

The text on the Sennacherib Prism boasts how Sennacherib destroyed 46 of Judah's cities. The Sennacherib Prism,(ii - iii 49) reads: “In my third campaign I marched against Hatti. Luli, king of Sidon, whom the terror-inspiring glamor of my lordship had overwhelmed, fled far overseas and perished.¡ The awe-inspiring splendor of the "Weapon" of Ashur, my lord, overwhelmed his strong cities (such as) Great Sidon, Little Sidon, Bit-Zitti, Zaribtu, Mahal liba, Ushu (i.e. the mainland settlement of Tyre), Akzib (and) Akko, (all) his fortress cities, walled (and well) provided with feed and water for his garrisons, and they bowed in submission to my feet. I installed Ethba'al (Tuba'lu) upon the throne to be their king and imposed upon him tribute (due) to me (as his) overlord (to be paid) annually without interruption. As to all the kings of AmurruÑMenahem (Mi-inhi-im-mu) from Samsimuruna, Tuba'lu from Sidon, Abdili'ti from Arvad, Urumilki from Byblos, Mitinti from Ashdod, Buduili from Beth-Ammon, Kammusunadbi from Moab (and) Aiarammu from Edom, they brought sumptuous gifts (igisu) andÑfourfoldÑtheir heavy tamartu -presents to me and kissed my feet. Sidqia, however, king of Ashkelon, who did not bow to my yoke, I deported and sent to Assyria, his family gods, himself, his wife, his children, his brothers, all the male descendants of his family. I set Sharruludari, son of Rukibtu, their former king, over the inhabitants of Ashkelon and imposed upon him the payment of tribute (and of) katru -presents (due) to me (as) overlordÑ and he (now) pulls the straps (of my yoke) ! [Source: Internet Archive, from ANET, pp. 287-88 The Siege of Jerusalem and the campaign of Sennarcherib are recorded on the Oriental Institutes Prism of Sennacherib. Further references to the campaign (particularly the siege of Lachich) are found on the palace reliefs.]

Divided kingdom in 830 BC

In the continuation of my campaign I besieged Beth Dagon, Joppa, Banai-Barqa, Azuru, cities belonging to Sidqia who did not bow to my feet quickly (enough); I conquered (them) and carried their spoils away. The officials, the patricians and the (common) people of Ekron3Ñwho had thrown Padi, their king, into fetters (because he was) loyal to (his) solemn oath (sworn) by the god Ashur, and had handed him over to Hezekiah, the Jew (Ha-za-qi-(i)a-u ame~la-u'-da-ai)Ñ (and) he (Hezekiah) held him in prison, unlawfully, as if he (Padi) be an enemyÑhad become afraid and had called (for help) upon the kings of Egypt (Mu,s(u)ri) (and) the bowmen, the chariot(-corps) and the cavalry of the king of Ethiopia (Meluhha), an army beyond countingÑand they (actually) had come to their assistance. In the plain of Eltekeh (A1-ta-qu-u), their battle lines were drawn up against me and they sharpened their weapons. Upon a trust(-inspiring) oracle (given) by Ashur, my lord, I fought with them and inflicted a defeat upon them.

“In the midst of the battle, I personally captured alive the Egyptian charioteers with the(ir) princes and (also) the charioteers of the king of Ethiopia. I besieged Eltekeh (and) Timnah (Ta-amna-a), conquered (them) and carried their spoils away. I assaulted Ekron and killed the officials and patricians who had committed the crime and hung their bodies on poles surrounding the city. The (common) citizens who were guilty of minor crimes, I considered prisoners of war. The rest of them, those who were not of crimes and misbehavior, I released. I made Padi, their king, come from Jerusalem (Ur-sa-li-im-mu) and set him as their lord on the throne, imposing upon him the tribute (due) to me (as) overlord.

“As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities, walled forts and to the countless small villages in their vicinity, and conquered (them) by means of well-stamped (earth-)ramps and battering-rams brought (thus) near (to the walls) (combined with) the attack by foot soldiers, (using) mines, breeches as well as sapper work. I drove out (of them) 200,150 people, young and old, male and female, horses, mules, donkeys, camels, big and small cattle beyond counting, and considered (them) booty. Himself I made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird in a cage. I surrounded him with earthwork in order to molest those who were his city's gate.

“His towns which I had plundered, I took away from his country and gave them (over) to Mitinti, king of Ashdod, Padi, king of Ekron, and Sillibel, king of Gaza. Thus I reduced his country, but I still increased the tribute and the katru -presents (due) to me (as his) overlord which I imposed (later) upon him beyond the former tribute, to be delivered annually. Hezekiah himself, whom the terror-inspiring splendor of my lordship had overwhelmed and whose irregular and elite troops which he had brought into Jerusalem, his royal residence, in order to strengthen (it), had deserted him, did send me, later, to Nineveh, my lordly city, together with 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, precious stones, antimony, large cuts of red stone, couches (inlaid) with ivory, nimedu-chairs (inlaid) with ivory, elephant-hides, ebony-wood, boxwood (and) all kinds of valuable treasures, his (own) daughters, concubines, male and female musicians. In order to deliver the tribute to do obeisance as a slave he sent his (personal) messenger.”

Siege at Lachish

The siege of Lachish refers to a Neo-Assyrian Empire's siege and conquest of the town of Lachish in 701 B.C.. Arguably no event in the Hebrew Bible is better supported by archaeology and external evidence than this event. It is documented in multiple Assyrian texts and reliefs from Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh and is also clearly visible in the site’s archaeology. These various sources agree that Lachish eventually fell to the Assyrians, who built a massive siege ramp to reach the top of the city’s walls. The same tactic would later be used by the Romans in their siege of Masada.[Source: Nathan Steinmeyer , Biblical Archaeology Society, January 28, 2022; Wikipedia]

Lachish was conquered as part of the Assyrian advance to Jerusalem in response to King Hezekiah withholding Judah’s tribute and inciting a regional rebellion against Assyrian control. The events of the campaign are recorded in numerous royal Assyrian inscriptions as well as several letters from Assyrian and Judahite soldiers. The events are also described in several biblical texts, including Isaiah 36–37, 2 Kings 18, and 2 Chronicles 32.

Located southwest of Jerusalem in the Judean foothills, Lachish was the second-most-important city in the Israel-Palestine region after Jerusalem, and was noted several times in historical sources. The Book of Joshua in the Hebrew Bible describes how the Canaanite city fell to the invading Israelites in about the 13th century B.C.: "And the Lord delivered Lachish into the hand of Israel, which took it on the second day, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and all the souls therein." Lachish was also sacked by the neo-Babylonians in the early sixth century B.C. and at least three other times, the earliest of which was in 1550 B.C.

Fall pf Lachish

The battlefield was the walled city of Lachish, situated on a hill. The northern part of the hill is steeper than the southern side and because of that the gate is situated there. The hill was quite high, and the walls on top of it were hard to breach. Inside there was a castle with significant walls.

The Judean military force was nothing compared to the huge, professional Assyrian army and mostly was made up of local militias and mercenaries. There were barely any cavalrymen and chariots in the Judean army which was comprised mostly infantry made up of close combat spearmen and long range combat archers.

Due to the steepness of the northern side of Lachish the Assyrian Army attacked from the south, where the Jewish defenders situated themselves on the walls. The Jewish defenders threw stones and shot arrows at the advancing Assyrians; the Assyrians started shooting arrows and stones themselves, creating a skirmish between the two armies. Assyrian military engineers built a ramp to the east of the main gate where Assyrian and Jewish troops engagein close combat. The Assyrians siege engines were able to breach the wall; the Jewish defenders could not hold the Assyrian army and retreated, with some attempting to escape from the other side of the hill.

2 Kings 18-19 in the Hebrew Bible, reads: “In the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, went on an expedition against all the fortified cities of Judah and captured them. Hezekiah, king of Judah, sent this message to the king of Assyria at Lachish: "I have done wrong. Leave me, and I will pay whatever tribute you impose on me." The king of Assyria exacted three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold from Hezekiah, king of Judah. Hezekiah paid him all the funds there were in the temple of the Lord and in the palace treasuries

Archaeological Study of the Ramp Used in Sennacherib’s Siege of Lachish

A study published in the Oxford Journal of Archaeology in January 2022, examined the construction of the Lachish siege ramp and argued that the biblical description of the event is quite accurate. Nathan Steinmeyer wrote on the Biblical Archaeology Society website: In investigating the Assyrian siege ramp at Lachish, the team examined several questions, specifically how the construction material for the ramp was collected and transported, how the ramp was built, how the ramp’s builders were protected from the city’s defenders, and how the ramp was made usable for Assyria’s heavy siege engines. In answering these questions, the team relied on textual and archaeological information, as well as statistical and computer analyses of the efficiency of various ramp models. [Source: Nathan Steinmeyer , Biblical Archaeology Society, January 28, 2022]

The study showed that it would have taken hundreds of workers laboring 24 hours a day over three weeks to build the siege ramp. It was constructed from medium-sized stones, around 15 pounds each, that were quarried and gathered by the Assyrian army from a small hillside adjacent to the city. The stones were likely carried to the construction site by workers made up mostly of foreign prisoners taken by the Assyrians on their way to Judah. These workers would have been protected by large shields as they carried their stones to the site and dumped their stones to gradually build up the ramp. This is in line with the biblical description of the siege in 2 Kings 19:32, which mentions how the Assyrian army confronted the city with shields.

The ramp was constructed from its back end forward, not from the ground up. Thus, the stones would be dropped over the edge of the ramp to the open area between the city’s wall and the end of the ramp. This would in turn minimize the height advantage of the defenders on the wall. The study notes that this particular construction method was clearly known to the biblical authors, who used the Hebrew verb spk, meaning “to pour,” to describe the building of the ramp (2 Kings 19:32). Thus, in the same way that liquids are poured, stones were poured over the end of the ramp in its construction

Finally, the upper surface of the ramp was constructed with a smoothed layer of dirt topped by wooden boards. This is seen in contemporary depictions of the siege including the famous Lachish relief from Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh. The smoothed surface allowed the heavy Assyrian battering rams to reach and then breach the city walls. These siege devices, which weighed up to a ton, were made up of a wooden frame and a heavy metal chain that held a log used to batter the city wall. Remarkably, one of these chains was uncovered from the excavations at Lachish.

According to the study, the siege ramp was roughly 260 feet long and would have required almost 20,000 tons of stones. Even if working 24 hours a day, it would have taken the Assyrian army between 20 and 25 days to construct the ramp. The Assyrian army was one of the most advanced of the day and easily conquered most of the smaller kingdoms and city-states in the southern Levant.

Sennacherib" Unsuccessful Siege of Jerusalem and the Angel of the Lord

Sennacherib is probably remembered most for his unsuccessful siege of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. Although Sennacherib was successful in conquering Lachish and many other Judahite cities and towns, he did not conquer Jerusalem. When the leader of Jerusalem Hezekiah said he was going to seek help from the Egyptians, the Assyrians, as recorded in the Bible’s Book of Kings replied: “Thou trustest upon the staff of this bruised reed [of] Egypt , in which if a man leans, it will go into his hands and pierce it: So is Pharaoh king of Egypt unto all that trust in him.”

The siege was cut short, according to the Bible, by intervention by angels. The account of Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem was written on six-sided clay book. An inscription on a statue found in the doorway of Sennacherib’s throne room recounts a story of Biblical story of bribery, the first known independent written account corresponding to a story in the Bible.

From The Hebrew Bible, 2 Chronicles 32: “But after he had proved his [Hezekiah's] fidelity by such deeds, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, came. He invaded Judah, besieged the fortified cities, and proposed to take them by storm. . . .His officials said still more against the Lord God and against his servant Hezekiah, for he had written letters to deride the Lord, the God of Israel. . . They spoke of the God of Israel as though he were one of the gods of the other peoples of the earth, a work of human hands. But because of this, King Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah, son of Amos, prayed and called out to him. Then the Lord sent an angel, who destroyed every valiant warrior, leader and commander in the camp of the Assyrian king, so that he had to return shamefaced to his own country. And when he entered the temple of his own god, some of his own offspring struck him down there with the sword.

The reasons why the Assyrians couldn't conquer Jerusalem debated, but it is known that a short time later, Judah was once again paying tribute to the Assyrian Empire. After Sennacherib returned to Nineveh he was murdered by his own sons.

Hebrew Account of the Siege of Jerusalem

The story of the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem is told in the biblical books of Isaiah (7th century B.C.), Second Kings (mid-6th century B.C.) and Chronicles (c. 350–300 B.C.). As the Assyrians began their invasion, King Hezekiah began preparations to protect Jerusalem. In an effort to deprive the Assyrians of water, springs outside the city were blocked. Workers then dug a 533-meter tunnel to the Spring of Gihon, providing the city with fresh water. Additional siege preparations included fortification of the existing walls, construction of towers, and the erection of a new reinforcing wall. Hezekiah gathered the citizens in the square and encouraged them by reminding them that the Assyrians possessed only "an arm of flesh", but the Judeans had the protection of Yahweh. [Source: Wikipedia]

2 Kings 19: 19 When King Hezekiah heard this, he tore his clothes and put on sackcloth and went into the temple of the Lord. 2 He sent Eliakim the palace administrator, Shebna the secretary and the leading priests, all wearing sackcloth, to the prophet Isaiah son of Amoz. 3 They told him, “This is what Hezekiah says: This day is a day of distress and rebuke and disgrace, as when children come to the moment of birth and there is no strength to deliver them. 4 It may be that the Lord your God will hear all the words of the field commander, whom his master, the king of Assyria, has sent to ridicule the living God, and that he will rebuke him for the words the Lord your God has heard. Therefore pray for the remnant that still survives.” [Source: Bible Gateway, New International Version Bible]

5 When King Hezekiah’s officials came to Isaiah, 6 Isaiah said to them, “Tell your master, ‘This is what the Lord says: Do not be afraid of what you have heard—those words with which the underlings of the king of Assyria have blasphemed me. 7 Listen! When he hears a certain report, I will make him want to return to his own country, and there I will have him cut down with the sword.’”

8 When the field commander heard that the king of Assyria had left Lachish, he withdrew and found the king fighting against Libnah. 9 Now Sennacherib received a report that Tirhakah, the king of Cush,[a] was marching out to fight against him. So he again sent messengers to Hezekiah with this word: 10 “Say to Hezekiah king of Judah: Do not let the god you depend on deceive you when he says, ‘Jerusalem will not be given into the hands of the king of Assyria.’ 11 Surely you have heard what the kings of Assyria have done to all the countries, destroying them completely. And will you be delivered? 12 Did the gods of the nations that were destroyed by my predecessors deliver them—the gods of Gozan, Harran, Rezeph and the people of Eden who were in Tel Assar? 13 Where is the king of Hamath or the king of Arpad? Where are the kings of Lair, Sepharvaim, Hena and Ivvah?”

14 Hezekiah received the letter from the messengers and read it. Then he went up to the temple of the Lord and spread it out before the Lord. 15 And Hezekiah prayed to the Lord: “Lord, the God of Israel, enthroned between the cherubim, you alone are God over all the kingdoms of the earth. You have made heaven and earth. 16 Give ear, Lord, and hear; open your eyes, Lord, and see; listen to the words Sennacherib has sent to ridicule the living God. 17 “It is true, Lord, that the Assyrian kings have laid waste these nations and their lands. 18 They have thrown their gods into the fire and destroyed them, for they were not gods but only wood and stone, fashioned by human hands. 19 Now, Lord our God, deliver us from his hand, so that all the kingdoms of the earth may know that you alone, Lord, are God.”

Assyrian Account of the Siege of Jerusalem

The text on the Sennacherib Prism boasts how Sennacherib trapped Hezekiah in Jerusalem "like a caged bird" and describes how the "terrifying splendor" of the Assyrian army caused the Arabs and mercenaries reinforcing the city to desert. It adds that the Assyrian king returned to Assyria where he later received a large tribute from Judah. This description inevitably varies somewhat from the Jewish version in the Tanakh. The massive Assyrian casualties mentioned in the Tanakh are not mentioned in the Assyrian version. [Source: Wikipedia]

The Sennacherib Prism reads: “In my third campaign I marched against Hatti. Luli, king of Sidon, whom the terror-inspiring glamor of my lordship had overwhelmed, fled far overseas and perished.... As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to his strong cities, walled forts, and countless small villages, and conquered them by means of well-stamped earth-ramps and battering-rams brought near the walls with an attack by foot soldiers, using mines, breeches as well as trenches. I drove out 200,150 people, young and old, male and female, horses, mules, donkeys, camels, big and small cattle beyond counting, and considered them slaves. Himself I made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal residence, like a bird in a cage. [Source: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources, (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. I: The Ancient World]

I surrounded him with earthwork in order to molest those who were his city's gate. Thus I reduced his country, but I still increased the tribute and the presents to me as overlord which I imposed upon him beyond the former tribute, to be delivered annually. Hezekiah himself, did send me, later, to Nineveh, my lordly city, together with 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, precious stones, antimony, large cuts of red stone, couches inlaid with ivory, nimedu-chairs inlaid with ivory, elephant-hides, ebony-wood, boxwood and all kinds of valuable treasures, his own daughters and concubines.”

After he besieged Jerusalem, Sennacherib was able to give the surrounding towns to Assyrian vassal rulers in Ekron, Gaza and Ashdod. His army still existed when he conducted campaigns in 702 B.C. and from 699 B.C. until 697 B.C., when he made several campaigns in the mountains east of Assyria, during one of which he received tribute from the Medes. In 696 B.C. and 695 B.C., he sent expeditions into Anatolia, where several vassals had rebelled following the death of Sargon II. Around 690 B.C., he campaigned in the northern Arabian deserts, conquering Dumat al-Jandal, where the queen of the Arabs had taken refuge.

Assyrian Military Camps From Sieges of Lachish and Jerusalem Discovered?

In June 2024, Stephen Compton, an independent scholar who specializes in Near Eastern Archaeology, said he had found the military camps used by the Assyrian forces under Sennacherib during sieges of Lachish and Jerusalem. Live Science reported: At the British Museum in London, there is a relief depicting the siege of Lachish, and it shows the Assyrian camp. Compton compared this relief to photos from the early to mid-20th century which show Lachish. He identified a site north of Lachish with an oval shaped structure with walls that he thinks may have been the Assyrians' camp. [Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science , June 19, 2024]

Compton noted that Assyrian camps tended to be oval. The Arabic name of the proposed camp site is "Khirbet al Mudawwara," and during the Middle Ages, the word "Mudawwara" could mean a place where a sultan placed a military camp. This suggests that people who lived at the site in later times knew that the ancient Assyrians had used it as a camp, Compton noted in an article published in the June issue of the journal Near Eastern Archaeology.

Additionally, an archaeological survey conducted in the early 20th century found the remains of pottery shards whose styles date to around the time that Sennacherib laid siege to Lachish, Compton noted. He told Live Science he has sent a copy of his paper to archaeologists who are working at the Lachish site and he hopes that future excavations will shed light on whether the Assyrian camp is located there.

In the case of the Jerusalem camp, Compton used old aerial photographs and 19th-century archaeological excavation records to survey the landscape. He noted that in 1881 to 1882, the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) found walls at a site called Jebel el Mudawwara, located north of the Temple Mount. The Palestine Exploration Fund is a non-profit organization that facilitates research in the region. [Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science , June 19, 2024]

The 19th-century archaeologists thought it was a Roman camp, but the excavation records indicate that the camp is oval. "Roman [military camps] were rectangular, whereas the photos indicate that this was roughly oval, consistent with an Assyrian camp," Compton wrote. Additionally, the name "Mudawwara" — a name associated with military camps — is used by 19th-century sources to describe the site.

If this is the place where Sennacherib set up camp to lay siege to Jerusalem, it could also be Nob, a site that once held the Tabernacle, a portable sanctuary constructed by Moses, Compton said. The Hebrew Bible claims that the Tabernacle was set up at Nob and that Nob was where Sennacherib halted to attack Jerusalem.

The site's 20th-century history may make it more difficult to conduct new excavations there. In the 1930s, the British built an ammunition storage facility at the site, and it became known as "Ammunition Hill." In 1948, the Jordanian army positioned soldiers on the site and built a series of trenches and fortifications. And in 1967, there was a bloody battle between the Israelis and Jordanian troops that resulted in Israeli troops taking the hill. Today, a museum and memorial site are located there.

Doubt About Whether Lachish and Jerusalem Camps were Really Discovered?

Owen Jarus wrote in Live Science: Scholars who were not involved with the research had mixed opinions of the findings. Some noted that the idea that the Khirbet al Mudawwara site at Lachish is an Assyrian camp is plausible. "The case of Lachish is the most interesting," Israel Finkelstein, a professor emeritus of archaeology at Tel Aviv University, told Live Science in an email. The "next thing to do is to check the suspected site in the field," Finkelstein said. Eckart Frahm, a professor of Assyriology at Yale University, said that it's possible that Khirbet al Mudawwara was an Assyrian siege camp. Others are doubtful, however. David Ussishkin, a professor emeritus of archaeology at Tel Aviv University who has conducted extensive work at Lachish, told Live Science he thinks the siege camp was to the southwest of Lachish.[Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science , June 19, 2024]

Meanwhile, the idea of Jebel el Mudawwara as the siege camp for Jerusalem got a negative response. Frahm said Assyrian inscriptions suggest that while Sennacherib blockaded Jerusalem, he didn't try to take it by storming it or through the use of siege engines. Assyrian inscriptions say Sennacherib built "fortified structures" to blockade Jerusalem rather than to construct a single camp, Frahm said.

Frahm also disagreed with the meaning of the Arabic word "mudawwara," saying it doesn't necessarily refer to a place where a sultan would place their tent. "The basic meaning of Arabic 'mudawwara,' if I am not very much mistaken, is 'round place' — and in my view, the many different al-Mudawwaras discussed by the author all simply indicate the roundness of the structure the term describes," Frahm said.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Mesopotamia sourcebooks.fordham.edu , National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, especially Merle Severy, National Geographic, May 1991 and Marion Steinmann, Smithsonian, December 1988, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated June 2024