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ROYAL NAMES IN ANCIENT EGYPT
cartouche chalice of Thutmosis III
The royal names and titles always appeared to the Egyptians as a matter of the highest importance. The first title consisted of the name borne by the king as a prince. This was the only one used by the people or in history; it was too sacred to be written as an ordinary word, and was therefore enclosed in an oval ring in order to separate it from other secular words. Before it stood the title “King of Upper Egypt and King of Lower Egypt. [Source: Adolph Erman, “Life in Ancient Egypt”, 1894]
The unification of Upper Egypt (southern Egypt) and the Lower Egypt (northern Egypt) was of great importance in the history of Egypt. The official title of the Pharaoh was always the “King of Upper Egypt and the King of Lower Egypt. " It was the same with the titles of his servants; originally they were the superintendents of the two houses of silver, or of the two storehouses, for each kingdom had its own granary and its own treasury.
During the Old Kingdom the idea arose that it was not suitable that the king, who on ascending the throne became a demigod, should retain the same common name he had borne as a prince. As many ordinary people were called Pepi, it did not befit the good god to bear this vulgar name; therefore at his accession a new name was given him for official use, which naturally had some pious signification. Pepi became "the beloved of Ra"; 'Esse, when king, was called, "the image of Ra stands firm"; and Mentuhotep is called “Ra, the lord of the two countries. " We see that all these official names contain the name of Ra the Sun-god, the symbol of royalty. Nevertheless, the king did not give up the family name he had borne as prince, for though not used for official purposes, it yet played an important part in the king's titles.
The Egyptians avoided using the name of the reigning monarch, in the same way as we feel a certain awe at needlessly pronouncing the name of God. They therefore spoke of the king as: “Horus the lord of the palace, the good god, his Majesty, thy Lord," or (usually under the New Kingdom) instead of all these designations, they used the indefinite pronoun one to signify sacred power — “One has commanded thee," “One is now residing at Thebes," would be, in the older style, “The king has commanded thee," or “The king resides at Thebes. "
When royal deeds are mentioned, the name of the ruler is used is connection with government buildings rather than of the ruler. “The Palace, the king's house, the great double hall “' and above all the “great house” are the usual appellations for the king; the being the source of the name Pharaoh.[Source: Adolph Erman, “Life in Ancient Egypt”, 1894]
Titles of the Pharaoh
The Pharaoh’s family name was the name which attested the high birth and the royal descent of the ruler, and as according to loyal belief the royal people was supposed to be descended from the sun-god Ra, the title Sou of Ra was placed with special significance before this name, e. g. the prince Amenemhet was therefore called as king:"the King of Upper Egypt and the King of Lower Egypt: Ra, the speaker of truth, the son of Ra: Amenemhat. "
The style was not even then complete, for on his accession the king took three other titles: "Horus"; “lord of the diadem of the vulture and of the snake "; and "the golden Horus "; these testify to his divine nature, for Horus is the youthful, victorious sun-god, and the two diadems are crowns belonging to the gods. To these three titles are again added three surnames, such as a king of the 13th dynasty is called: “Horus, who united the two countries, the lord of the diadem of the vulture and of the snake, of abiding splendour, the golden Horus, souls of the gods, the King of Upper Egypt and the King of Lower Egypt: ' Ra of splendid life,' the son of Ra' "
cartouche of Nefertiti
Such are the phrases necessary to designate the Egyptian king in full style, and even these long titles were often insufficient to content the loyalty of the scribes of the New Kingdom; their reverence for their ruler sometimes even found expression in a short psalm appended to his name; such as the dating of a stele, erected under Ramses II., on the way to the gold mines of Nubia, runs thus: “In the 3rd year of His Majesty Horus: the strong bull, beloved by the goddess of truth, the lord of the diadem of the vulture and of the snake: who protects Egypt, and subdues the barbarians, the golden Horus: full of years, great in victories, the King of Upper Egypt and the King of Lower Egypt: Ra, strong in truth, chosen of Ra, the son of Ra, Ramses, the beloved of Amun, giver of everlasting life, the beloved of the Theban Amun-Ra, the lord of the temple, the throne of the two countries, shining daily on his throne amongst men as his father Ra.
“The good lord, the lord of the south — the Horus with the bright plumes of the temple of Edfu, the beautiful silver hawk, who protects Egypt with his wings, preparing shade for mankind, the castle of strength and of victory — who came out terribly from his mother's womb, in order to take to himself fame, extending his borders — the color of his body is as the strength of the war-god Mont — the god Horus, the god Set — Heaven rejoiced at his birth; the gods said: we have brought him up; the goddesses said: he was born of us, to be the leader of the kingdom of Ra; Amun said: I am he who made him, I seated truth in her place; for his sake the earth is established, the heavens satisfied, the gods contented — the strong bull against the miserable Ethiopians, his roaring rages against the negroland: whilst his hoofs trample the Troglodytes, his horn pushes them — his spirit is mighty in Nubia, and the fear of him reaches to the land of Kary, his name is famous in all countries because of the victories which his arms have won — at the mention of his name gold comes out of the mountains, as at the name of his father; the god Horus of the land of Baka — he is greatly beloved in the land of the south...The king of Upper Egypt and the king of Lower Egypt; Ra, strong in truth, the chosen of Ra — from the loins of Ra, the lord of crowns, Ramses, the beloved of Amun, the daily giver of eternal life like his father Ra."
Cartouches
Cathie Spieser, an independent researcher in Switzerland, wrote: “The cartouche is an elongated form of the Egyptian shen-hieroglyph that encloses and protects a royal name or, in specific contexts, the name of a divinity. A king’s throne name and birth name were each enclosed in a cartouche, forming a kind of heraldic motif expressing the ruler’s dual nature as both human and divine. The cartouche could occur as a simple decorative component. When shown independently the cartouche took on an iconic significance and replaced the king’s, or more rarely, the queen’s, anthropomorphic image, enabling him or her to be venerated as a divine entity. Conversely, the enclosure of a god’s or goddess’s name in a cartouche served to render the deity more accessible to the human sphere. [Source: Cathie Spieser, independent researcher, Switzerland, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2010, escholarship.org ]
“The cartouche derives from the Egyptian shen-ring, a hieroglyphic sign depicting a coil of rope tied at one end, meaning “ring, circle,” the root Sn (shen) expressing the idea of encircling. Symbolically, the cartouche represents the encircling of the created world by the sun disc—that is, the containment of “all that the sun encircles.” Originally, the shen-ring was probably an amulet formed from a length of papyrus rope looped into a circle with an additional binding. The cartouche is an elongated shen-ring, extended to accommodate and magically protect a royal name.
“The convention of enclosing the king’s name in a cartouche initially appeared on royal monuments and may possibly date back as early as the First Dynasty, although there is currently little conclusive evidence to support this supposition. Recent work on early writing may well shed light on the question. The cartouche was first used to enclose the king’s birth (given) name. The earliest attested example of an enclosed birth name— that of Third Dynasty pharaoh Huni, found on a block at Elephantine—is doubtful. Well attested, however, are examples on royal monuments of Sneferu (Fourth Dynasty) and his successors. By the middle of the Fifth Dynasty, during the regency of Neferirkara, the newly instituted throne name is also enclosed within a cartouche.
See Separate Article: CARTOUCHE: MEANING, PURPOSE, VENERATION africame.factsanddetails.com
Types of Royal Names in Ancient Egypt
Cartouches of the god Aten, 18th dynasty, c 1351-34
Günter Vittmann of the University of Würzburg wrote: “There are two types of names based on royal names: 1) Unextended royal names, consisting of either the birth name; 2) “Names composed with a royal name, often, but not always, forming a complete sentence. Examples of Unextended royal names: Jmn-m-HAt “Amenemhat”, abbreviated Jmny, 4-n-wsrt “Senusret”, 9Hwtj-ms “Thutmose”, 5Sno “Shoshenq” , PsmTk “Psammetichus”, JaH-ms “Amasis”—or the throne name, e.g., 4Htp-jb-Ra “Sehetepibra”, 2pr-kA-Ra “Kheperkara”, Mn- xpr-Ra “Menkheperra”, WAH-jb-Ra “Wahibra”, Nfr-jb-Ra “Neferibra”, 3nm-jb-Ra “Khenem- ibra”, these being the throne names of Amenemhat I, Senusret I, Thutmose III, Psammetichus I and II, and Amasis respectively, which were widely used as personal names during and after the reigns of those kings. [Source: Günter Vittmann, University of Würzburg, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2013, escholarship.org ]
Examples of names composed with a royal name, with a complete sentence: Mry-ttj “Beloved by Teti”, Mry-Ra-anx “Merira (Pepy I is alive”), Ra-ms-s(w)-nxt “Ramesses is strong, or victorious”, anx-5Sno “May Shoshenq live”, 3nm-jb-Ra-mn “Khenemibra (i.e., Amasis) is enduring”, whose formulations are analogous to those of theophorous names as described above.
“Royal names often offer no more than the terminus a quo for dating; thus one must examine each case individually. In the Old Kingdom (2649–2150 B.C.), unextended royal names were generally not used as personal names, 6tj presumably being no exception as it need not be the king’s name. Compound basilophorous names were used, however, both during the reigns of the respective kings and later, e.g., 4nfrw-Htp “Seneferu is content”, 2wfw-nxt “Khufu is strong, or victorious”, 2wfw-mr-nTrw “Khufu is beloved by the gods”, 2wfw-m-Axt “Khufu is in the horizon”, anx(.j)-m-a-9d.f- Ra “My life is in the hand of Djedefra”.
Names Derived from Royal Names in Ancient Egypt
We cannot be surprised that the Egyptian officials, who always tried to show their loyalty, should often name their children after the kings. Under the Old Kingdom we find combinations such as “Snefru is Beautiful”, “Pepi Endures”, “Pepi is Strong''. Under the New Kingdom those are preferred which signify the piety of the Pharaoh, such as “Seti in the House of Thoth”, or “Neferti in the house of Amun”. After the 11th dynasty, however, it was customary to give sons the name of the monarch without further addition, as well as the prenomens and titles of the king, as Shining in Thebes, the Bull with the understanding heart, and even titles such as. Lord of the the Countries, and Your lord, are used under the New Kingdom." [Source: Adolph Erman, “Life in Ancient Egypt”, 1894]
This custom of naming the children after the Pharaoh without the addition of any epithet, of calling the children Amen when an Amen was on the throne, or 'Entef during the reign of an 'Entef, is the cause of great confusion. The kings of the 11th dynasty were cither 'Entef, Amen, or Mentuhotep, and these names survived in many families; some of the kings of the 12th dynasty were called Amenemhat, others Senusrit, and the great courtiers named their children after them. Under the 12th dynasty, therefore, these five names meet us at every turn; for instance, out of twenty-seven male members of a family, thirteen are called Senusret. In the same way later the names Ahmose and Amenhotep continually occur under the 18th dynasty, and that of Ramses under the 20th. Those especially well disposed (and what Egyptian official did not wish himself to be thought well disposed) seem not to have been content with naming their children after the monarch, but to have re-named them when a new Pharaoh ascended the throne. Thus under Senusret I., the "chief judge and governor" was called after that monarch, though we can scarcely believe that the first official of the kingdom was born during his reign. It is far more likely that he was born under Amenemhat, and bore some other name, which was changed to the royal name at the accession of the new Pharaoh. We meet with many similar cases.
The adoption of the royal name must doubtless have caused much confusion in the kingdom; but this confusion must have been still greater at the courts of the nomarchs of the Middle Kingdom; for in the time of the 12th dynasty, the custom arose for the officers of the household of the great men to call themselves and their children after their lord, in the same way as the state officials after the Pharaoh. The following instance may give an idea of the incredible confusion which was the result. The province, whose governors were buried at Beni Hasan, was governed at the beginning of the time of the Middle Kingdom (I know not in what order), by princes bearing the names of Amen, Khnumhotep, Mentuhotep, Khety and Nakht. The consequence was that at the court of the Khnumhotep, son of Neher'e, whom we have so frequently mentioned, two-thirds of all the officials of the nome bore the name of this prince. Amongst his servants there were at least eleven of the name of Khnumhotep, nine of Nakht, four of Khety, two of Mentuhotep, and two of Amen. One-third only bore names after their own pleasure.
Patterns of Royal Name-Giving in Ancient Egypt
Ronald Leprohon of the University of Toronto wrote: “In ancient Egypt the selection of royal names could follow a number of patterns, including borrowing from the ruler’s own family or from an illustrious predecessor. The names often announced a king’s policy or the situation in which the ruler found himself at his accession. [Source: Ronald Leprohon, University of Toronto, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2010, escholarship.org ]
“Close examination of the four names taken by the king at his coronation—that is, the so-calledHorus, Two Ladies, Golden Horus, and Throne names—demonstrates how carefully such names were chosen. The nomenclature could be original to the incumbent, borrowed from his own family, or could hearken back to an illustrious ancestor; it could also announce a monarch’s policy or anticipate a victory over ignoble foreigners.
“The original titulary of Amenhotep III illustrates a number of the themes to be considered here. His Horus name, kA nxt xa m mAat, “The victorious bull who has appeared in truth,” is patterned after Thutmose III’s Horus name, kA nxt xa m WAst, “The victorious bull who has appeared in Thebes,” and directly borrowed from another Horus name of the same king, kA nxt xa m mAat. The latter designation is found on a number of obelisks erected at Heliopolis and Thebes to celebrate Thutmose III’s third Sed Festival. Because of their setting in temples, such monuments would have been readily available to Amenhotep III’s court. Thanks to his predecessors’ vigorous military campaigning as well as his father’s diplomatic alliances, Amenhotep III felt secure enough within his realm to declare in his Two Ladies name that he was “One who established laws and made the Two Lands peaceful” (smn hpw sgrH tAwj), thus revealing his internal policies. The king’s external policy was expressed in his Golden Horus name, aA-xpS Hwj sttjw, “The great-of- strength one who has struck down Asiatics”; the phrase approximates one of Thutmose III’s Golden Horus names, aA-xpS Hwj pDt 9, “The great-of-strength one who has struck down the Nine Bows”, the latter from an obelisk set up at Karnak Temple. Moreover, Amenhotep III’s throne name, nb mAat Ra, “Possessor of the cosmic harmony of Ra,” associates him with the divine realm.
Historical Development of Royal Titles
Ronald Leprohon of the University of Toronto wrote: “As the titulary developed, specific patterns emerged in the names. The monarchs of the newly united country selected aggressive designations; obvious examples are the Horus Narmer, Aha (“The fighter”), Den (“The [head] cutter”), and Adjib (“The slaughterer of hearts”). Some early dynastic names may even reflect actual political changes, such as the Horus Khasekhem (“The powerful one has appeared”), who, after defeating the Seth Peribsen, changed his name to Khasekhemwy (“The two powerful ones have appeared”), with the word sxmwj, “the two powerful ones,” referring to both Horus and Seth. This type of name change would become a vehicle for some kings to announce landmark victories, such as Nebhepetra Mentuhotep II, who changed part of his titulary according to the vagaries of his war against the Herakleopolitan foes. He firstcalled himself the Horus sanx jb tAwj, “The one who sustained the heart of the Two Lands.” By his fourteenth year, this was changed to the Horus and Two Ladies nTrj HDt, “The divine one of the White Crown,” and some time before his year 39, with the civil war over, he styled himself the Horus and Two Ladies zmA tAwj, “The one who has united the Two Lands.” [Source: Ronald Leprohon, University of Toronto, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2010, escholarship.org ]
“With rulers using more than one name early on, other patterns also emerged; for example, the Two Ladies name often reflected the Horus name during the Old Kingdom. Some instances are the 4th-Dynasty kings Khufu (Horus mDdw, “The one who has been adhered to,” and Two Ladies mDd r nbtj, “The one who has adhered to the Two Ladies”) and Khafra (Horus wsr jb, “The strong-minded one,” and Two Ladies wsr m nbtj, “Who is strong by means of the Two Ladies”); the 5th-Dynasty king Niuserra (Horus st jb tAwj, “The [perfect] place of the mind of the Two Lands” and Two Ladies st jb nbtj, “The [perfect] place of the mind of the Two Ladies”); and King Teti of the 6th Dynasty (Horus sHtp tAwj, “The one who has propitiated the Two Lands,” and Two Ladies sHtp nbtj, “The one who has propitiated the Two Ladies”).
“It has been suggested that the second cartouche—usually thought to house the ruler’s birth (given) name—of a number of 5th-Dynasty kings simply contained a short form of the throne name (in much the same manner as a nickname). Thus Neferirkara’s second cartouche shows the name Kakai, Niuserra’s shows the name Ini, and Menkauhor’s holds the short form Ikau(hor). Because such hypocorisms were used so seldom, it is difficult to be too categorical about their significance, but they may help explain certain rulers’ names that seem to defy translation.
“With the five-fold titulary fully developed by the time of the 12th Dynasty, a clear progression of names can be detected from one king to another. After the 11th Dynasty was unable to furnish a proper heir or was replaced—perhaps even peacefully—the first ruler of the new family, Amenemhat I, used the Horus name sHtp jb tAwj, “He who has propitiated the mind of the Two Lands,” as well as the Golden Horus name zmA, “The uniter.” An additional Horus name, wHm mswt, “The one who has repeated births”, may well have announced a new era, reflecting the aspirations of a vigorous family to safeguard Egypt, and may have coincided with the move from Thebes to Itj-tawy, probably modern-day Lisht, south of the Memphite area. Amenemhat I’s son Senusret I pronounced himself the Horus anx mswt, “Long live the (re-)birth,” referring to his father’s legacy. With the family firmly on the throne, Amenemhat II could then rightfully choose Hkn m mAat, “The one who has rejoiced in cosmic harmony,” as both his Horus and Two Ladies names. An innovator, Senusret II proclaimed himself the Horus sSm tAwj, “The planner of the Two Lands,” perhaps anticipating his later reclamation works in the Fayum, and the Two Ladies sxa MAat, “The one who has caused Maat to appear,” following his father’s theme of maat-harmony. He also took a Golden Horus name Htp nTrw, “The gods are satisfied,” and the throne name xa xpr Ra, “The one (whose) manifestation has appeared, (like) Ra.” His son Senusret III continued the “divine” theme by calling himself the Horus nTrj-xprw, “Divine of manifestations,” along with his family’s theme of “birth,” reflected in his Two Ladies name, nTrj-mswt, “Divine of births.” He then repeated his father’s theme of “appearing” with his throne name xa kAw Ra, “The one (whose) kas have appeared in glory, (like those) of Ra.” Following his father’s vigorous policies, which had expanded the frontiers of Egypt up to the Second Cataract, Amenemhat III could now proclaim himself the Horus aA- bAw, “The one great of might,” the Two Ladies jT jwat tAwj, “The one who has seized the inheritance of the two lands,” and the King of Upper and Lower Egypt nj mAat Ra, “The one to whom belongs the cosmic harmony of Ra.” Similar progressions can also be found in the titularies of the 18th-Dynasty rulers.”
Borrowing Royal Names from Predecessors
Tutankhamun's cartouche
Ronald Leprohon of the University of Toronto wrote: “This adoption of forerunners’ titularies was, in fact, a common practice, especially within specific families or particular groups of rulers. Examples of the latter have been demonstrated for the Theban 13th and 17th Dynasties, who drew heavily from one another. Names could also be borrowed from illustrious predecessors. Ramesses IX went back nearly 12 centuries to Pepy II for his throne name, Neferkara; and Nectanebo I used Senusret I’s throne name, Kheperkara, from nearly 16 centuries earlier, for his own prenomen. [Source: Ronald Leprohon, University of Toronto, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2010, escholarship.org ]
King Piankhy, the Kushite ruler who came north and defeated a divided Egypt to establish the 25th Dynasty, provides another specific example. He chose a number of Horus names, one of which—sHtp tAwj.fj, “The one who has propitiated his Two Lands”—evokes the Horus name of the 6th- Dynasty king Teti, sHtp tAwj, “The one who has propitiated the Two Lands.” He was also known as the Horus kA nxt xa m WAst, “The victorious bull who has appeared in Thebes,” a direct borrowing from Thutmose III, whose titulary would have been known to the Kushites from the earlier monarch’s triumphal stela left at the temple of Amun at Gebel Barkal. One of Piankhy’s throne names, mn xpr Ra, “The enduring one of the manifestation of Ra,” was also taken directly from Thutmose III’s throne name. Another, wsr-mAat Ra, “Strong of truth (in the manner) of Ra,” was appropriated from the throne name of Ramesses II, whose inscriptions were also widespread in Nubia. In this respect, it is noteworthy that, for all their vaunted archaistic tendencies, the rulers of the 26th Dynasty did not borrow from previous kings for their own titularies, save for the fact that they returned to earlier, shorter, patterns for their names.
“Such borrowings imply a knowledge of past royal names. Perhaps the royal administration kept records of all or most royal names, which could be consulted when needed. The so- called Turin Canon is the best example of such a list, with its throne names and lengths of reigns. Other lists include the 5th-Dynasty Palermo Stone, the 6th- Dynasty annals found re-used as a sarcophagus lid, and a list of kings dating to the Third Intermediate Period found re-used in a Fatimid-era wall in Cairo. Although these catalogs are useful to us today, they do not supply the full five-fold titulary, which the Egyptians called nxbt. Such records surely existed, although they have not survived.”
Titles of the Queen of Egypt
Silke Roth of Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Germany wrote: “Significantly, a feminine equivalent of the ruler’s designation as nswt (“king”) did not exist in ancient Egypt. In fact, most of the queens’ titles and epithets related them to the king and the king as the earthly embodiment of the gods, respectively. Only from the Middle Kingdom onward did their titles indicate a ruling function. [Source: Silke Roth, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2009, escholarship.org ]
“The most important and therefore most frequent queens’ titles include those that refer to their marriage, or kinship, to the king—Hmt nswt (“wife of the king”) and mwt nswt (“mother of the king”)—as well as the non- specific titles sAt nswt (“daughter of the king”) and snt nswt (“sister of the king”). The queenly office is also reflected in the titles mAAt 1rw-4tS (“the one who beholds Horus-Seth,” i.e., the king, used mainly in the Old Kingdom), jrjt pat (“the one who belongs to the pat,” i.e., the elite), wrt Hts (“great one of the hetes-scepter”), wrt Hst (“great one of favor”), wrt jmAt (“great one of grace,” used in the Middle Kingdom and later), and Xnmt nfr HDt (“the one who is united with the White Crown,” used in the Middle Kingdom and later, the “White Crown” being an attribute of the king). Commonly attested from the Middle Kingdom onward are Hnwt tAwi (“lady of the Two Lands,” i.e., Egypt) and, as early as the New Kingdom, Hnwt 5maw MHw (“lady of the South and the North”), Hnwt tAw nbw (“lady of all lands”), and nbt tAwy (“mistress of the Two Lands”). Evidence that the queen played a priestly role in the cult of Hathor and various other deities is provided by titles of the type Hmt nTr NN (“priestess of the god/goddess NN,” used in the Old and Middle Kingdoms) and Hmt nTr Jmn (“God’s wife of Amun,” used in the New Kingdom and later).
“In the course of a queen’s career—as her role progressed, for example, from that of a king’s daughter, to a king’s wife, to, finally, a king’s mother—the corresponding titles were added to her titulary. From as early as the Old Kingdom a typical string of “core” titles can be discerned, varying in range and order in later times. In instances where minimal titulary was provided, it appears that, at the very least, the titles “wife of the king” or “mother of the king” were mentioned.
“To obtain an heir and guarantee the succession to the throne, Egyptian kings were polygynous; therefore, usually several coexisting wives are attested for each sovereign. As a rule, only one “wife of the king” was depicted together with her husband, so it seems that only one of them officiated as queen by holding the queen’s titulary and insignia. It was not until the 13th Dynasty that the title Hmt nswt wrt (“great wife of the king”) was introduced to distinguish this “principal wife” from the secondary wives of the ruler.”
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons except Amarna Palace, the Amarna Project
Text Sources: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Tour Egypt, Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com; Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.
Last updated August 2024