Book of the Dead and Other Ancient Egyptian Religious Texts | Middle East And North Africa

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EARLY ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGIOUS TEXTS

Pyramid Texts are among the oldest ancient Egyptian texts. They were based on inscriptions of spells found in the burial chambers of the pyramids and dated to around 2600 B.C. They were like an early compendium on the Egyptian religion. The “ Amduat” (“The Book of the Netherworld”) and “ The Book of the Dead “ are based on them. A typical spell from the “ Pyramid Texts “ went: “O Osiris, the King, may you be protected. I give to you all the gods, their heritages, their provisions, and all their possessions, for you have not died.”

Coffin Texts, dated to around 2000 B.C., “ evolved from he Pyramid Texts”. It is a collection of spells placed by artisans in wooden coffins. Neither the “Pyramid Texts” nor the “ Coffin Texts” ever appeared in book form. They were written on tomb walls or coffins.

Amduat (“The Book of the Netherworld”) was a narrative that described the daily journey of a dead pharaoh through the netherworld on a boat of the sun god Re, and his victory over dangers and obstacles to rise again the next morning. The book was originally restricted to use by the pharaoh and those that attended him.

Other important texts included: 1) The Book of Two Way, describing the underworld as composed of canals, streams, islands, fires and boiling water; 2) The Book of GatesBook of That Which Is , describing the 12 sections of the Underworld, each related to an hour of the Night; and 4) Book of Adophis, detailing the battle between the sun god Ra and the giant serpent Apophis.

Websites on Ancient Egypt: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Discovering Egypt discoveringegypt.com; BBC History: Egyptians bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians ; Ancient History Encyclopedia on Egypt ancient.eu/egypt; Digital Egypt for Universities. Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics. ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt ; British Museum: Ancient Egypt ancientegypt.co.uk; Egypt’s Golden Empire pbs.org/empires/egypt; Metropolitan Museum of Art www.metmuseum.org ; Oriental Institute Ancient Egypt (Egypt and Sudan) Projects ; Egyptian Antiquities at the Louvre in Paris louvre.fr/en/departments/egyptian-antiquities; KMT: A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt kmtjournal.com; Egypt Exploration Society ees.ac.uk ; Amarna Project amarnaproject.com; Abzu: Guide to Resources for the Study of the Ancient Near East etana.org; Egyptology Resources fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk

Sacred Writing in Ancient Egypt

The Egyptians never succeeded in making a final definite text of their sacred writings, a text which in no point ought to be changed. Their sacred books, which were supposed only to be touched by the gods after they had purified themselves, were really, in spite of their sacred character, at the mercy of every scribe. The learned body of religious men had more important matters to do than to protect them, they had to explain them; and the manner in which this was done is so characteristic of the Egyptians that I will give the reader a specimen of the above-mentioned commentary. [Source: Adolph Erman, “Life in Ancient Egypt”, 1894]

Amongst the earliest conceptions of the life of the soul after death was one particularly widespread, according to which the soul left the body behind and went up into heaven. All impurities were taken away, the divine part alone remained, and the soul became a god like the other gods; was welcomed by the glorified, and entered proudly through the gate of heaven, in order to remain in everlasting glory with the sun-god Atum and the stars. The triumphal hymn, as it were, which the soul sang on entering into heaven, is contained in the “Book of the Dead.” The beginning runs somewhat in the following manner:

Book of the Dead fragment

“I am the god Atum, I who was alone. “1 am the god Ra at his first appearing. “I am the great god, who created himself, and created his name, lord of the gods, to whom not one of the gods is equal (?). “I was yesterday, and I know the morrow; the place of combat of the gods was made when I spoke. I know the name of that great god who dwells within him. I am that great Phoenix who is in Hcliopolis, who there reckons up everything that is and that exists. “I am the god Min at his coming forth, whose feathers I place upon my head. “I am in my country, I come into my town. I am daily together with my father Atum. “My impurities are driven out, and the sin which was in me is trodden under foot. I washed myself in those two great tanks which are in Heraklcopolis, in which the sacrifices of mankind are purified for that great god who dwells there. “I go on the way, where I wash my head in the lake of the justified. I reach this land of the glorified and enter through (?) the glorious gate. “You, who stand in front, reach out to me your hands, I am so, I am become one of you — I am together daily with my father Atum. "

So much for the old text, which even now does not need much commentary to enable us to gather the general sense. The deceased stands at the gate of heaven, he feels that he has become a god, and boasts of his divine nature. He esteems himself the equal of each of the ancient gods, of Atum, of Ra, and of that god at whose word the gods once fought. He has forsaken his earthly house in order to enter the heavenly one; he has cleansed himself from all impurities, and now enters the gate of heaven, and the glorified spirits reach out to him their hands, and conduct him to his father the sun-god.

Egyptian Book of the Dead

The "Egyptian Book of the Dead" is a modern-day name given to a variety of texts that served a number of purposes, including helping the dead navigate the underworld. Much of the “Book of the Dead” is a compilation of rituals, incantations and spells designed to assist the dead in their journey to the netherworld. Hieroglyphics from this book were usually written all over the walls inside tombs. Egyptian Book of the Dead” did not provide information on what death was like give advise on how to make mummies and prepare tombs.

The Egyptian name of the “Egyptian Book of the Dead” was “Per Em Hru” , which literally translated means “Book of Coming Forth by Day” or “Journey of the Light.” It was created around 1500 B.C., when papyrus became widely used and people could more easily afford to be buried with papyrus rolls rather pay out for expensive tomb paintings or wooden coffins. Many copies of the “ Egyptian Book of the Dead” have been excavated from tombs. Many spells are accompanied by illustrations with scenes of the afterlife.

The “Egyptian Book of the Dead” was never a real book but rather a collection of spells from various sources. In ancient Egyptian times the spells often varied from text to text. Many of the spells originated in the “Pyramid Texts” and the “Amduat”.

Book of the Dead Commentary

For learned men of Egypt the texts of the “Book of the Dead” were not enough. The ancient poet who praised the happy fate of the deceased did not touch their hearts, but only incited their heads so much the more to invent difficulties, and for those who as they thought really understood the religion there was not a line in which there were not problems to solve. In early times therefore the old hymn was provided with a commentary, which in the course of centuries became more and more voluminous. Many passages that the learned men of the Middle Kingdom had considered clear appeared to those of the New Kingdom to need explanation, and on the other hand many old elucidations appeared incorrect to later commentators, and they felt themselves bound to add a better explanation. We can easily conceive, after the previous remarks, that they did not content themselves with amending the commentary, but sometimes endeavored to improve the ancient text itself

Book of the Dead spell

The commentary to the "Book of the Dead” was certainly considered a masterpiece of deep learning; to us of the modern world it will often appear nonsense, for in every harmless word the commentators scented a hidden meaning. When the poet said: God knows “that which is, and that which exists," he naturally meant that God knew all things; this explanation, however, was too simple for the learned men of Egypt; “that which is, and that which exists “is, according to the older commentators, “eternity and the endless existence," whilst according to the later ones, we are led to understand that what is meant is “day and night. " We must add one more thought. When the poem was composed the descriptions of the gods and of the life after death were as obscure as such matters are in the lore of all primitive people. This obscurity had long vanished. The details of the lives of the gods had been evolved, as well as the history of what should happen to the soul after death, and in particular that doctrine had been formulated which treated of the particular relations of the deceased to Osiris, the god of the dead. It appeared of course incomprehensible to the learned that this sacred hymn should mention nothing of all this; evidently it was only necessary rightly to understand it in order to find all they wanted. Thus in fact everything that they sought in it was found, especially when they helped out the text a little.

When at the beginning of the old song the poet said: “I am Atum, I who was alone," he meant, of course, that this god existed before all the other gods; the later writers preferred to say: “I am Atum, I who was alone on the ocean of heaven," they thus foisted in the conception that with the god an ocean, a chaos, already existed. Further on we read: “I am Ra at his first appearing. " The beautiful idea of the sun-god suddenly enlightening the hitherto dark world was not sufficient for the learned men of the New Kingdom; they changed the text into “I am Ra at his appearing, as he began to rule over what he had created. " Then they added further the following gloss; “Explain it — This Ra, who began to rule over what he had created, this is Ra who shone as king before the supports of Shu were created. He was on the terrace of the town Hermopolis (Chmunu) when the children of the rebels were given to him on the terrace of Hermopolis. " Here they succeeded therefore in interpolating into the old text the legend that Ra formerly ruled as king over the earth, before he withdrew to rest on the heavenly cow supported by the god Shu. According to the commentators the poet was even supposed to have in his mind a particular event in this reign which took place in the famous town of Hermopolis, when he compared the deceased, who had become like a god, with the sun-god.

15-Meter-Long, 3,500-Year-Old Book of the Dead Papyrus

In October 2023, archaeologists announced that had uncovered a 3,500-year-old, 15-meter (49-foot) -long copy of the "Book of the Dead" in a cemetery, at the Tuna al-Gebel site, alongside the mummies of high-ranking officials.[Source: Katherine Tangalakis Lippert, Business Insider, November 23, 2023]

Owen Jarus wrote in Live Science: The cemetery at Tuna al-Gebel in central Egypt dates back to the New Kingdom (circa 1550 to 1070 B.C.) and contains mummies, sarcophagi, amulets and numerous "shabti" figurines that were meant to serve the deceased in the afterlife, according to an Arabic statement from the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities. The statement contained little information on the newly found copy of the "Book of the Dead." It is not clear which exact texts it contains or with whom it was buried.[Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science, October 25, 2023]

Book of the Dead Hunefer sheet 5

Scholars who were not involved with the excavation said the find could be important. It is "very rare" to find a copy of the "Book of the Dead" in the grave where it was originally buried, Foy Scalf, an Egyptologist and head of research archives at The University of Chicago, told Live Science. Lara Weiss, CEO of the Roemer and Pelizaeus Museum in Germany, who has studied the "Book of the Dead" extensively, told Live Science that "if it's that long and well-preserved [then it's] certainly a great and interesting find."

The archaeologists at the newfound cemetery unearthed a number of coffins and mummies, including the daughter of Djehuty, a high priest of the god Amun who lived more than 3,500 years ago, according to the statement. Another coffin appears to belong to a woman who was a singer in the temple of Amun, a deity associated with the sun and the ancient city of Thebes (modern-day Luxor). The cemetery also contained many canopic jars that would have held the organs of the deceased, the statement said. Remains of stone sarcophagi, which held the wooden coffins of the deceased, were also found.

16-Meter-Long, 2,000-Year-Old Book of the Dead Papyrus

In February 2023, the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities released photos of a 2,000-year-old, 16-meter (52-foot) -long “Book of the” papyrus scroll discovered within a coffin in a tomb near the Step Pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara in May 2022. It was not unusual for ancient Egyptians to bury the Book of the Dead with the deceased. [Source: Owen Jarus, Live Science, February 23, 2023]

In one photograph The Book of the Dead scroll slightly unrolled on a table. The papyrus was found rolled up in a coffin belonging to a man named Ahmose (not to be confused with a pharaoh who lived in earlier times). The man's name is mentioned in the papyrus about 260 times, the researchers said. He lived around 300 B.C., near the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Ahmose's tomb is located south of the step pyramid, built for Djoser, a pharaoh from the third dynasty who ruled from about 2630 B.C. to 2611 B.C. While this pyramid was built long before the time of Ahmose, it wasn't unusual to find Ahmose's tomb there, as people in ancient Egypt sometimes liked to be buried near the pyramids of long dead pharaohs.

The text and images were written in black and red ink, and the quality of the writing indicates that it was written by a professional, researchers said. Despite the size of the scroll, there are longer Book of the Dead texts known from Egypt. For instance, a Book of the Dead papyrus, which is now in the British Museum, was originally 37 meters (121 feet) long.

One the left of one image, which shows a part of the Book of the Dead, is a block of hieratic text. On the right is an image appears to show Osiris, the ancient Egyptian god of the underworld, sitting on a throne whilst wearing a crown with offerings before him. The "Atef" crown is often seen on the head of Osiris. The creature near offerings may be Ammit, a deity who consumed anyone who was not worthy of being ritually restored in the afterlife. Another image from the Book of the Dead appears to depict offerings and a scene of a couple (believed to be Ahmose and his wife) venerating Egyptian deities. Not much is known of Ahmose, but he was wealthy enough to have an elaborate copy of the Book of the Dead made for him.

At the far left of another image, a cow appears to be led somewhere — perhaps to be given as an offering. A number of images depict boats, which could be used to navigate the underworld. Yet another iamge shows a creature (with a long snout and sitting back on its hind legs like a dog,), possibly Ammit, sitting before Osiris.

Coffin Text spells painted on the inside panels of coffin of Khety 1919–1800 BC

Coffin Text: The Tale of Horus and the Pig, c. 1900 B.C

Coffin Text: The Tale of Horus and the Pig, (c. 1900 B.C.): Why the Egyptians did not eat pork: “O Batit of the evening, you swamp-dwellers, you of Mendes, ye of Buto, you of the shade of Re which knows not praise, you who brew stoppered beer — do you know why Rekhyt [Lower Egypt] was given to Horus? It was Re who gave it to him in recompense for the injury in his eye. It was Re — he said to Horus: "Pray, let me see your eye since this has happened to it" [injured in the fight with Seth]. [Source: A. de Buck, “The Egyptian Coffin Texts,” (Chicago, 1918), p. 326, Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt, Fordham University]

Then Re saw it. Re said: "Pray, look at that injury in your eye, while your hand is a covering over the good eye which is there." Then Horus looked at that injury. It assumed the form of a black pig. Thereupon Horus shrieked because of the state of his eye, which was stormy [inflamed]. Horus said: "Behold, my eye is as at that first blow which Seth made against my eye!" Thereupon Horus swallowed his heart before him [lost consciousness]. Then Re said: "Put him upon his bed until he has recovered." It was Seth — he has assumed form against him as a black pig; thereupon he shot a blow into his eye. Then Re said: "The pig is an abomination to Horus." "Would that he might recover," said the gods. That is how the pig became an abomination to the gods, as well as men, for Horus' sake...”

Ancient Egyptian Religion and Magic Texts Written in Coptic

Preserved in the wrappings of an Egyptian mummy, the Liber Linteus text dates back 2,200 years and is written in Coptic and Etruscan, a language that was used in Italy in ancient times. Dating back about 2,200 years, the mummy and its removed wrappings are now in the Zagreb Museum in Croatia. [Source Owen Jarus, Live Science, October 17, 2016]

Owen Jarus wrote in Live Science: The text's meaning is not entirely clear. It was "classified as a funerary calendar in the past, but nowadays, it is usually labelled as a ritual calendar, although months are only mentioned from column 6 onwards," Lammert Bouke van der Meer, a professor at Leiden University, wrote in an essay published in the book "Votives, Places and Rituals in Etruscan Religion" (Brill, 2008).

In ancient Egypt, it was common for materials to be reused as mummy wrapping or to make mummy masks. Additionally, trade was widespread in the Mediterranean in ancient times, and it was not unusual for goods to be transported between Italy and Egypt according to ancient records and archaeological finds.

The Egyptian Handbook of Ritual Power (as researchers call it) is a 20-page codex dates back around 1,300 years and is written in Coptic. It contains a variety of magical spells and formulas, including love spells, spells for curing black jaundice (a potentially fatal infection) and instructions on how to perform an exorcism.

The text may have been written by a group of Sethians, an ancient Christian sect who held Seth, the third son of Adam and Eve, in high regard. The opening of the text references a mysterious figure named "Baktiotha," whose identity is unknown. "I give thanks to you and I call upon you, the Baktiotha: The great one, who is very trustworthy; the one who is lord over the forty and the nine kinds of serpents," a translationof the text reads.

The researchers who translated and analyzed the text call it a "Handbook of Ritual Power. " It is now housed at the Museum of Ancient Cultures at Macquarie University in Sydney. The university purchased the codex in 1981 from a Vienna-based antiquities dealer named Michael Fackelmann. Where Fackelmann got it from is unknown.

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, The Louvre, The British Museum, The Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Text Sources: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Tour Egypt, Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com; Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.

Last updated July 2024