Home | Category: Old and Middle Kingdom (Age of the Pyramids)
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD OF ANCIENT EGYPT (2150-2130 B.C.)
Seated Mentuhotep
The First Intermediate Period lasted roughly from 2150 to 2030 B.C. and that encompassed dynasties seven to 10 and part of 11. During this time central government in Egypt was weak and the country was often controlled by different regional leaders. Eric A. Powell wrote in Archaeology magazine: As the governors became more autonomous, increasing political and climatic instability after the end of the 6th Dynasty led to the fall of the Old Kingdom and the beginning of a period of political fragmentation known by scholars as the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2150–2030 B.C.).
The term "Intermediate" is used to describe periods when there was no strong centralized government unifying the Upper and Lower Egypt. During the first Intermediate Period there was dynastic rule both in the North (at Herakleopolis), and in the South (at Thebes). In the south, local officials did not acknowledge the northern kings, instead governing the provinces (called nomes) in their own right. The attempts to reunify the land fostered sporadic internal conflicts and civil wars. Over time the governors of Thebes in Upper Egypt established Dynasty 11 and competed with the Heracleopolitan kings by gaining dominion over the south as far as the first Cataract. [Source: Encyclopaedia Judaica, Thomson Gale, 2007; New Catholic Encyclopedia, The Gale Group Inc., 2003]
During the First Intermediate Period Egypt became a group of states headed by warlords grouped loosely in confederations of north and south. This schism lasted for 700 years. At the beginning of this period one scholar wrote, "All the pyramids were looted, not secretly at night but by organized bands of thieves in broad daylight...The temples were burned. There was widespread violence. And a desperate famine took hold of the land."
Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt fought against one another. Poverty and hunger became widespread. Inscriptions show droughts, sandstorms and women forced to eat fleas to survive. One inscription read: "I gave bread to those who were hungry and clothes to those who were naked...All of Upper Egypt was dying of hunger, to the point where children were eating their own children." Another read, "The entire country had become like a starved locust.”
Fall of the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt
Economic problems, drought and famine weakened the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. There was a severe 200-year drought in North and East Africa around 2200 B.C. Hieroglyphics record that the annual Nile flood failed for about 50 years and many people died in famine. This may have produced the collapse of the Old Kingdom and the period of chaos that followed.
At the beginning of the 5th dynasty the Pharaohs ceded some of their power to a rising class of nobles. Egypt fragmented into several rival principalities and the Old Kingdom collapsed into something resembling a police state. The decline is indicated today by the presence of noblemen tombs in the districts where they ruled instead of around the pyramids of the pharaohs. The pyramids built during this period were of inferior quality to those built before.
Professor Fekri Hassan wrote for the BBC: “Nothing prepared Egypt for the eclipse of royal power and poverty that came after Pepy II (Neferkare). He had ruled for more than 90 years (2246-2152 B.C.) as the fourth king of the 6th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Within the span of 20 years, fragmentary records indicate that no less than 18 kings and possibly one queen ascended the throne with nominal control over the country. This was the entire length of the 7th and 8th Dynasties (2150-2134 B.C.). In the last few years of the 6th Dynasty, the erosion of power of the centralized state was offset by that of provincial governors and officials who became hereditary holders of their posts and treated their regions as their own property. [Source: Professor Fekri Hassan, BBC, February 17, 2011, Professor Fekri Hassan is from the Institute of Archaeology, University College London. His areas of interest include the cultural dynamics of state formation in Ancient Egypt, the role of gender in the early religious and political developments in rock art and the attributes of the earliest Egyptian goddesses]
See FALL OF THE OLD KINGDOM OF ANCIENT EGYPT africame.factsanddetails.com
Transition from the Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period
The Old Kingdom collapsed during a time of political fragmentation, civil disorder, environmental disaster and famine. The climate of Northeast Africa becoming dryer, the flow of the Nile decreased and death rate increased. For a time petty warlords ruled the provinces. Then some unity occurred a ruling family led by a ruler named Khety emerged from the city of Herakleopolis and briefly controlled the whole country. Soon after Egypt was divided with the North, ruled from Herakleopolis and the South ruled from Thebes. The Theban dynasty was relatively stable while the Herakleopolis Dynasty was characterized by a rapid succession of kings. The North and South fought off and on through the period, with the conflict finally being resolved in the 11th dynasty. [Source: Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com]
Renate Mueller-Wollermann of the University of Tuebingen wrote: “Dynasties 6 and 8 are combined in the Canon of Turin; the 7th Dynasty is fictive. Thus, anciently the Old Kingdom was considered to have ended after the 8th Dynasty. It seems to have been marked by the transfer of the royal residence from Memphis to Herakleopolis. [Source: Renate, Mueller-Wollermann, University of Tuebingen, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 2014, escholarship.org ]
“The seeds of this period of disorder were planted during the 5th Dynasty,” . Miroslav Bárta, head of the Czech Institute of Egyptology’s Abusir Mission, told Archaeology magazine. “Any civilization dissolves when its system of values, symbols, and communication disappears. But this collapse did not necessary imply an end.” When pharaohs once again consolidated some centralized power after the First Intermediate Period, non-royal families still wielded great influence and Osiris continued to reign as the god of an underworld where the souls of all Egyptians dwelled. While the mighty pyramids of Giza remained powerful symbols of the Old Kingdom, the fundamental social and religious changes ushered in during the 5th Dynasty would continue to shape Egypt long into the future. [Source:Eric A. Powell, Archaeology magazine, November-December 2020]
Beginning of the First Intermediate Period
Mentuhotep I
According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “The Intermediate Period I begins with the death of Pepi II. Scientists are not completely positive but somewhere either directly after or shortly before he died, a climatic change occurred which caused crops to fail and led to hunger across Egypt. As a result, there was famine, poverty, social upheaval and anarchy. Local governors tried to maintain control by placing the needs of their people above that of the neighbors, but it was difficult to say how widespread the famine and social upheaval was. It is certain that it engulfed Memphis which was the capital at that time. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]
After more than 20 years there appears to have been a line of kings which made up the 9th and 10th Dynasties. These kings resided at Herakleopolis and managed to stabilize their power over their neighboring regions and then they took control of Delta. Their attempt to take control of Upper Egypt failed when they encountered resistance from the princes of Upper Egypt somewhere around Thebes. Thebes became "the door of the South." Later on Thebes would start a rebellion against Herakleopolis and managed to set-up their own independent kingdom. This is likely to have extended down to the first cataract and up to just south of Abydos. Later, there was another war between Herakleopolis and Thebes which was over the control of Egypt. Thebes, which was led by Nebhetepre Mentuhotep I, conquered Herakleopolis after a period of a few years. This marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt.” +\
“The Herakleopolitans expelled Asiatic immigrants from the Nile delta and fortified the eastern border of Egypt. This dynasty was responsible for establishing the importance of Memphis. The Herakleopolitans improved irrigation works, reopened trade with Byblos, and began the "Coffin Texts". One of the kings wrote the "Instruction to Merikara." They also had frequent outbreaks of fighting against the Thebans north of Abydos. Eventually they were conquered by the Thebans and this marked the end of the Herakleopolis Dynasty and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom.” +\
Seventh and Eighth Dynasties of the Old Kingdom (c. 2150 – 2120 B.C.)
The last two dynasties of the Old Kingdom (Dynasties 7 and 8, c. 2150–2130) were short-lived and gave way to a group of kings (Dynasties 9 and 10, c. 2130–2040) who were based at Heracleopolis in the Faiyum district and controlled only the northern half of Egypt. The Seventh dynasty advanced the border up the Nile to the Second Cataract. Order was preserved, the draining of El Faiyum was begun (adding a new and fertile province), a uniform system of writing was adopted, and civilization reached a new peak.
Miroslav Bárta wrote: During his very long reign of at least 60 years, Pepi II took a large number of wives, who gave him a large number of offspring and potential male aspirants to the throne. Following his reign came a period of instability, marked by frequently changing rulers who represent the Seventh Dynasty. According to tradition as related by the historian Manetho—or more precisely, by later authors who preserved a part of Manetho’s history of Egypt—the Seventh Dynasty lasted 70 days, during which 70 kings reigned. According to another extant source, five rulers reigned for a total of 75 days. It is understandable that the Seventh Dynasty left no lasting mark on Egyptian history. [Source: Miroslav Bárta, head of the Czech Institute of Egyptology’s Abusir Mission, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 2017]
The Eighth Dynasty, however, can be officially considered a part of the political history of the Old Kingdom. This period is demarcated by the years 2150 – 2118 B.C., a stretch of 32 years or, in practical terms, a little longer than one human generation. The reasons for considering the Eighth Dynasty a part of Old Kingdom history are clear-cut. According to the available sources, the kings of the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties continued to reside in the vicinity of Men-nefer-Pepi, and at least some of them continued to build pyramid complexes, especially at South Saqqara.
Apparently they were also able to maintain control, for the most part, over southern Egypt with the help of their Abydos “relatives,” and to issue royal decrees applicable to some of the temples in the provinces (primarily Coptos), which made them economically independent. That Pepi I and II entered into many marriages may have increased instability at the court and created factions and interest groups that ultimately weakened the effectiveness of the state apparatus. Pepi II’s eight known marriages alone produced at least four kings of the Eighth Dynasty: Neferkara (II) Nebi, Nemtyemsaf Merenra II, Netjerkara (sometimes erroneously referred to as Nitokris), and Nefer Neferkara
First Intermediate Period Rulers
First Intermediate Period Rulers
(ca. 2150–2030 B.C.)
Dynasty 8–Dynasty 10, (ca. 2150–2030 B.C.)
Dynasty 11, first half, (ca. 2124–2030 B.C.)
Mentuhotep I (ca. 2124–2120 B.C.)
Intef I (ca. 2120–2108 B.C.)
Intef III (ca. 2059–2051 B.C.)
Mentuhotep II (ca. 2051–2030 B.C.)
[Source: Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2002]
Information from the years following the death of Pepy II is limited. The only person from this era period that seems to have left a lasting impression was a woman called Nitokris who appears to have acted as king. There are no contemporary records of her but Herodotus wrote: “She killed hundreds of Egyptians to avenge the king, her brother, whom his subjects had killed, and had forced her to succeed. She did this by constructing a huge underground chamber. Then invited to a banquet all those she knew to be responsible for her brother’s death. When the banquet was underway, she let the river in on them, through a concealed pipe. After this fearful revenge, she flung herself into a room filled with embers, to escape her punishment.” [Source: Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com ^^^]
None of the names of kings of the short-lived seventh dynasty are known and the eighth dynasty shows signs of and political decay. Some books about this time period mention that there may have been 70 kings in 70 days. This was undoubtedly a fictitious dynasty meant to show the instability of this period. It might have been a Memphite Dynasty. [Source: Renate, Mueller-Wollermann, University of Tuebingen, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 2014, escholarship.org , Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com]
The Eighth Dynasty was short lived (20 years) and we only know the names of two of the approximately 17 or 18 kings: Wadjkare and Qakare Iby. The former left behind royal exemption decrees and the later, a small pyramid. During this dynasty in Coptos (located in Upper Egypt) there was a series of decrees that indicate that the 8th Dynasty kings were confirming administrative positions in the government and temples. Some sources say the 17 or 18 kings were more like minor warlords ruling different provinces. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]
The 9th-10th Dynasty was also known as the Herakleopolis Dynasty because the rulers controlled lower Egypt from Herakleopolis. This dynasty is also often called the "House of Khety" because many of the ruler's names were Khety, but it is considered to be fairly unstable due to frequent changes in rulers. Ninth & Tenth Dynasties rulers were: Khety Meryibra, Khety Wahkara, Merykara, Ity
Achtoes and Mentuhotep I
According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “Achthoes is considered to be the king of both the 9th and 10th Dynasty. In many books, Achthoes is also called Nebkaure Akhtoy. In the "Tale of the Eloquent Peasant," a peasant is robbed by a noble. The peasant then takes his plea for justice to the highest court of the land, the court of Nebkaure Akhtoy. Akhtoy was so impressed by the speech the peasant gave that he asks the pheasant to tell it over and over again. Thence forth, the peasant found justice and the king was pleased.[Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]
“Nebhetepre Mentuhotep I ruled Egypt for about 39 years during the 11th Dynasty. During his life he adopted three different names. The first was 'He who gives heart to the Two Lands' which was followed by 'Lord of the White Crown.' This undoubtedly marks the transition from being the regional ruler to being the ruler of Upper Egypt. Some time later he became known as the 'Uniter of the Two Lands.' This obviously marks the point at which Mentuhotep reunited all of Egypt. +\
Upon defeating the Herakleopolitans and reuniting Egypt, peace and prosperity settled over Egypt. This marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom with Mentuhotep being the first king. Mentuhotep began several building projects at different sites. Of the works that were built none is marveled more than the mortuary complex at Deir el-Bahari. This magnificent complex was built into the cliffs on the west bank of the Nile. Another name that he is known as is Mentuhotep I.
Mentuhotep II
The Middle Kingdom began with the reunion of Egypt under Mentuhotep II. Earlier rulers in the 11th dynasty, which was centered in Thebes, had begun to reassert their authority over fragmented Egypt but Mentuhotep II was the first to unify the kingdom. Mentuhotep II was from Upper Egypt. His conquest of Lower Egypt took time as reflected by gradual changes in his title from "One Who Gives Heart to Two Lands" to "Lord of White Crown (Upper Egypt)" to "Unifier of the Two Lands." Mentuhotep II's 50-year reign ushered in a rebirth of Egyptian culture.
Mentuhotep II was also known as Nebhepetre Mentuhotep I He ruled for 51 years in the 10th and 11th Dynasties. His reign brought stability to Egypt, and his conquests robbed local warlords of their armies and subsequently their power. This put Nebhepetre Mentuhotep I in an unrivaled position as king not been realized since Phiops II. Mentuhotep II’s son, Mentuhotep III, succeeded him. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]
Nebhetepre Mentuhotep I ruled united Egypt for about 39 years during the 11th Dynasty. The change from his first name 'One Who Fives Heart to Two Lands' to 'Lord of the White Crown’ (Upper Egypt) clearly marks his transition from being a regional ruler to the ruler of Upper Egypt. The name 'Uniter of the Two Lands’ obviously marks the point at which Mentuhotep reunited all of Egypt. +\
Upon defeating the Herakleopolitans and reuniting Egypt, peace and prosperity settled over Egypt. This marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom with Mentuhotep as being the first king. Mentuhotep began several building projects at different sites. Of the works that were built none is marveled more than the mortuary complex at Deir el-Bahari. This magnificent complex was built into the cliffs on the west bank of the Nile. It inspired the famous temple of Hatshepsut built nearby 500 years later. +\
Food Shortages and Famine in the First Intermediate Period and the Early Middle Kingdom
Sally Katary of Laurentian University wrote: “There are frequent allusions to low Nile levels that led to drought and famine in texts of the First Intermediate Period and the early Middle Kingdom. Autobiographical inscriptions of nomarchs of the First Intermediate Period and early Twelfth Dynasty depict these high officials as the saviors of their people in times of crisis, using rhetoric that goes back to Old Kingdom recitals of virtue in mortuary texts. Khety I, nomarch of Assiut during the First Intermediate Period, claims credit for a ten-meter-wide canal, providing irrigation to drought-stricken plowlands through planned water management. In his Beni Hassan tomb-autobiography, Amenemhet (Ameny), nomarch under Senusret I, claims that he preserved his nome in “years of hunger” through wise and fair policies of land management. There is also mention of a food shortage in the Hekanakht Papers. [Source: Sally Katary, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2012, escholarship.org ]
“These texts suggest that abrupt climate change led to frequent famines, and that nomarchs took a leading role in saving their people because of their access to emergency food supplies, control over the management and conservation of existing food supplies, and access to the engineering skills needed for effective land and water management. Food shortages certainly occurred at times of drought or spoiled harvests, as stored commodities were used up and the new harvest was not yet ready or fit for consumption. What is not clear is whether the texts refer to true famines or temporary shortages in the food supply.
“There is no evidence that any action was taken on the part of the central government to intervene in local affairs; solutions presumably were left to the local officials, water management and the distribution of food being controlled locally. The piety typical of autobiographical inscriptions led officials to boast of virtuous acts that they may not have actually performed. Thus, there is probably much exaggeration in their claims of having saved the populace in times of disaster. While there were certainly occasional food shortages, there is no evidence for the dire conditions described in these autobiographies. There is also no evidence that drought and famine were unique to this period or were of such magnitude that they played a significant role in destabilizing the government at the end of the Old Kingdom. Climate change toward drier conditions at the end of the third millennium B.C. was likely gradual rather than catastrophic.”
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Tour Egypt, Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com; Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.
Last updated July 2024