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MUHAMMAD BATTLES THE MECCANS
Battle of Badr The lack of acceptance by Meccans of Muhammad's preaching caused him and his followers in A.D. 622 to migrate to Medina. In leaving Mecca, Muhammad chose to abandon the city where he had grown up to pursue his mission in another place; thus, the event often has been used to illustrate a genuine commitment to duty and sacrifice. Within his Mecca-based tribe Muhammad was regarded as a traitor for abandoning the tribe and tribal leaders vowed to kill him.
Muhammad’s tribe, The Quraysh, were unwilling to leave Muhammad alone in Medina, and various skirmishes and battles occurred, with each side trying to enlist the tribes of the peninsula in its campaigns. The Muslims in Medina survived three battles by Meccan armies. Eventually Muhammad gained enough followers and amassed an army of 10,000, and the Quraysh surrendered without a fight. In A.D. 630 Muhammad returned to Mecca, where he was accepted without resistance. Subsequently he moved south to strongholds in At Taif and Khaybar, which surrendered to him after lengthy sieges. After Muhammad took over Mecca he destroyed the idols in the Kaaba, converted the Meccans and made Mecca a Muslim community. Mecca today is now Islam’s holiest site and Muslims are expected to make a pilgrimage there, ideally during the Hajj, at least once during their lives. [Source: Encyclopedia.com]
John L. Esposito wrote in the “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”: With establishment of the community at Medina, the bitter conflict between Mecca and Muhammad and his followers continued. Muhammad threatened the economic power and political authority of the Meccan leaders with a series of raids against their caravans. In addition, several key battles occurred that are remembered in Muslim tradition as sources of inspiration and guidance. In 624 Muslim forces, although greatly out-numbered, defeated the Meccan army in the Battle of Badr, in which they believed they were aided by divine guidance. The Koran (3:120) declares that thousands of angels assisted the Muslims in battle. This battle has special significance for Muslims because it represents the victory of monotheism over polytheism, of good over evil, of the army of God over the army of ignorance and unbelief. Badr remains an important sacred symbol for contemporary Muslims. For example, Egypt's President Anwar as-Sadat launched the 1973 Arab-Israeli war as a jihad with the code name Operation Badr. [Source: John L. Esposito “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”, 2000s, Encyclopedia.com]
The Battle of Uhud, in 625, represented a major setback for the Muslims when the Meccans bounced back and soundly defeated them, wounding Muhammad. The Battle of the Ditch, or Battle of the Trench, took place in 627, when the Meccans mounted a siege against the Muslims, seeking to crush them permanently. The Battle of the Ditch proved to be a major turning point, however. The Muslims dug a trench to protect themselves from the Meccan cavalry and doggedly resisted the Meccan siege. In the end the Meccans were forced to withdraw, and a truce was struck at Hudaybiyah, a pact of nonaggression that proved a face-saving device for both parties. The truce granted the Muslims the right to make the pilgrimage to Mecca the following year but required that Muhammad end his raids and the attempt at an economic blockade. At the same time, the truce signaled recognition of the political legitimacy of Muhammad.
Websites on Muhammad: Encyclopædia Britannica britannica.com ; Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet — PBS Site pbs.org/muhammad ; Prophet Muhammad prophetmuhammad.com; Islamic History: History of Islam: An encyclopedia of Islamic history historyofislam.com ; Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World oxfordislamicstudies.com ; Sacred Footsetps sacredfootsteps.com ; Internet Islamic History Sourcebook fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook ; Islam IslamOnline islamonline.net ; Institute for Social Policy and Understanding ispu.org; Islam.com islam.com ; BBC article bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam ; Islam at Project Gutenberg gutenberg.org
Muhammad, the Caravan Raider
Muhammad was an able military leader. He and his followers regularly defended Medina against attacks and regularly raided the rich Mecca-bound caravans and moved against hostile tribes, seizing booty and exacting tribute.
Caravan raiding was not necessarily regarded as a crime in Arabia. It was viewed as a kind of sport and means of redistributing wealth. There were strict rules as to whom you could and couldn’t raid. Great care was taken to steal booty and livestock without harming anyone for the killing of people could trigger a nasty blood feud that could last for generations.
Muhammad himself participated in the raids, including one during the holy month of Rajab when fighting was prohibited. He was wounded on at least one occasion.
Muhammad stint as a caravan raider occurred after he organized his followers into a political community. Hostilities continued for seven years. During that time the Jewish tribes of Medina became opponents and bedouin tribes from Western and Central Arabia gradually were incorporated into the Muhammad community.
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad expelled the tribes of Jews from Medina---and killed adult males in his tribe, which he suspected of collaborating with the Meccans in a battle against Medina.
Muhammad and Violence
Muhammad Before the Battle of Badr Muhammad and his raiders planned to raid the annual caravan from Damascus to Mecca, which included more than a thousand camels. Tipped off, the Meccans sent a reinforcements to defend the caravan. At the wells of Badr, near the Red Sea, there was a fierce battle. Muhammad said, "All those who die today will enter paradise!" Although they were outnumbered three to one, the story goes, Muhammad's disciplined 300-man army routed the undisciplined Meccans. The Battle of Badr in 624 was a stunning victory for the Muslims. Bedouin fighters impressed by their courage joined them.
A year later at Mount Uhud near Medina, when the Meccans retaliated with the aim of not only defeating the Muslims but exterminating them. They almost succeeded. Many Muslims were killed. Muhammad nearly died. He was wounded in the face by a stone, then hit in his helmet with swords. Bleeding and unconscious, he was pulled from the battle fields by his companions. Muslims vented their anger at Jewish tribes in Medina, who were expelled for supporting the Meccans. By some accounts Muslims in Medina murdered 700 Jews.
One of the reasons why fighting and jihad play such central roles ins the Qur’an and Islam is that much of Muhammad’s life took place at a time of tribal conflict and war. Once victory was secured, Muhammad devoted his attention building a peaceful coalition of tribes dedicated to nonviolence.
Muhammad Defeats the Meccans
In 627, around 3,000 Muslims routed the 10,000-man Meccan army in the Battle of the Trench, so called because the Muslims dug a great trench outside of Medina, which thwarted the Meccan cavalry charges. This was followed by a massacre of the Qurayzah Jewish tribes which had collaborated with the Meccans, an act that seems unnecessarily cruel in today’s terms but was well within the terms of what was regarded as acceptable in ancient Arab warfare.
The victory was a great boost for Muhammad and Islam. Arabs saw Muhammad as a star on the rise. They also saw that the gods of the Meccans didn’t help them and so maybe there was something to the one God religion pushed by Muhammad. New tribes and Meccan defectors joined the Muslim forces.
Muhammad followed up the victory over the Meccans by organizing a pilgrimage to Mecca. He was accompanied by about 1,000 unarmed followers. Muhammad believed the Meccans wouldn’t attack them and break Mecca’s status as a peaceful sanctuary. The Meccans did try to attack them but the Muhammad and his followers were able to elude them with the help of Bedouins. In 628, the Meccans were pressured by peaceful demonstrations to sign the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. This opened the floodgate for new converts to embrace Islam.
Battle of Badr
According to a traditional account: “The Great Battle of Badr took place on the seventeenth of Ramadan, two years after the Hijra. This was the first battle that the believers ever engaged in with the disbelievers, and it is, by far, the most famous and most renown, becuase of the several extraordinary events that occured during it. Rasoolullah (saws) had encouraged the Muslims to oppose the Quraish caravan which was returning to Mecca from Sham. The Muslims went out with 300 and some soldiers not intending to meet a caravan of about 40 men, not intending to fight but only to overpower them. The caravan escaped, but Abu Sufyan had already sent word to Quraish to come and protect it.” [Source: Internet Archive, from islaam.com]
Battle of Badr According to the traditional account of the Battle of Badr: “The Quraish marched with enormous army of 1000 men, six hundred wearing shields, 100 horses, and 700 camels, and luxurious provisions to last for several days. The disbelievers wanted to make this a victory that would put fear into the hearts of all the Arabs. They wanted to crush the Muslims once and for all and the odds were overwhelmingly in their favor. Imagine that the believers with their small army (including only 2 horses), going out with the intent of meeting a mere 40 unarmed man and instead meeting a well- prepared army of 3 times their size.... Rasoolullah (saws) could have easily ordered the believers to fight and they wouldn't have hesitated to comply, but, he (saws) wanted to emphasize to his followers that they should fight out of conviction and iman and to teach us a lesson in the process. He gathered his followers to conduct shura (consultation). [Source: Internet Archive, from islaam.com]
“Many of the muhajireen (the Muslims who emigrated from Mecca to Medinah) spoke up, using the most eloquent of words to describe their dedication. But there was one of the sahabah whom all the others envied for his statement to Rasoolullah (saws). He, Miqdad ibn al Aswad, rose up in front of the crowd and said, 'Ya Rasoolullah! We will not say to you like Bani Israel said to Musa, 'Go you and your Lord and fight, we are here sitting (waiting).' (surat al maa'idah). Go by Allah's blessing and we are with you!" And so Rasoolullah (saws) was very pleased, but in his greeat wisdom, he waited silently, and some among the Muslims knew what he intended. So far only the muhajiroon had given their consent, but it was the Ansar (the Muslims who lived in Medinah and welcomed the Muslims into their city) who had the most to loose in this stake and it was not a part of the pledge (that Rasoolullah had taken from the Ansar at ‘Aqabah) for the Ansar to fight with the Muslims in foreign territory.
“So, the great leader of the Ansar, Sa'd ibn Mu'adh spoke up, "Ya Rasoolullah! Maybe you mean us." Rasoolullah (saws) responded in the affirmative. Sa'd proceeded to give a beautiful speech in which he said, among many things: "O Messenger of Allah, we have believed in you and we believe that you are saying the truth. We give you, based on that, our covenant to listen to and obey you.....By Allah, the One Who sent you with the truth, if you were to enter the sea, we would rush into it with you and not one of us would stay behind...May Allah show you in our actions what will satisfy your eyes. So march with us, putting our trust in Allah's blessings." Rasoolullah (saws) was very pleased by this and said, “Forward and be of cheer, for Allah has promised me one of the two (the caravan or the battle), and by Allah, it is as if I now saw the enemy lying prostrate.”
“The Muslims marched forward and encamped at the nearest spring of Badr (closest to Medinah, which is north of Mecca). One of the companions, Al-Hubab ibn Mundhir, asked Rasoolullah (saws), “Has Allah inspired you to choose this very spot or is it stratagem of war and the product of consultation?” Rasoolullah (saws) said, “It is the product of stratagem of war and consultation.” So Al-Hubab suggested that the Muslims encamp further south on the nearest water well, make a basin of water for themselves, and destroy the other wells to thereby restrict to Quraish’s access to the water. Rasoolullah (saws) approved of his plan and carried it out. [*] Then, Sa’d ibn Mu’adh suggested that a trellis or hut be built for Rasoolullah (saws) as a protection for him and to serve as a headquarters for the army. Rasoolullah (saws) and Abu Bakr stayed in the hut while Sa’d ibn Mu’adh and a group of his men guarded it. Rasoolullah (saws) spent the whole nigh preceeding the battle in prayer and supplication evn thought he (saws) knew that Allah (swt) had promised him victory. It was out of his (saws) love for and worship and submission to Allah (swt) that he did this. And it was said that this is the highest form of ‘ibadah knowns as “‘ain al yaqeen”, a state of being completely dependant and submissive to Allah (swt), which distinguished him (in superiority) from Abu Bakr As siddiq (ra) who only had “‘ilm al yaqeen”, the certainty of the promise. Unusally, that same night, the night when tensions were mounting for one of the biggest events in history, the night before the battle that would signify the progress or defeat of Islam, instead of being nervous, worried and unable to sleep, the Muslim army enjoyed a sound and refreshing sleep. That night was the night of the 17th of Ramadan, the year 2 A.H.
“This was a Divine favor which Allah (swt) mentioned in the Quran: “(Remember) when He covered you with a slumber as a security from Him, and He caused rain to descend on you from the sky, to clean you thereby and to remove from you the Rijz (whispering, evil suggestions, etc.) of Satan, and to strengthen your hearts, and make your feet firm thereby.” [8:11] The seond favor from Allah (swt) mentioned in this verse is the rain that Allah (swt) sent upon the believers that very night. The place where the Muslims were to encamp was made of sandy ground which was hard to walk on becuase one’s feet could easily sink in it. Allah (swt) sent the rain to make the ground firm under their feet and sent the sleep to make their hearts firm. The next morning, Rasoolullah (saw) was still asleep when Quraish was very closely approaching. Abu Bakr (ra) was very hesitant to wake the noble Messenger (saws), but was forced to do so becuase Quraish were approahcing quickly. The Muslims were arranged in ranks. When the two parties appoached closer and were visible to each other, Rasoolullah (saws) began supplicating, “O Allah! The conceited and haughty Quraishites are already here and defying You and and belying Your Messenger. O Allah! I m waiting for Your victory which You have promised me. I beseech You Allah to defeat them.” He (saws) then gave strict orders that his men would not start fighting until he gave them his final word. He recommended that they use their arrows sparingly [1] and never resort to swords unless the enemies came too close. [2] The Quraish were haught and arrogant and confident in their superior number, weapons, and provisions but it is Allah (swt) who would decide the matter: “(O disbelievers) if you ask for a judgement, now has the judgement come unto you and if you cease (to do wrong) , it will be better for you, and If you return (to the attack), so shall we return, and your forces will be of no avail to you, however numerous it be, and verily, Allah is with the believers.” [8:19]
Allah’s Intervention in the Battle of Badr
According to the traditional account of the Battle of Badr: “The battle began with a confronation between three men from each side: 1) Hamza (Rasoolullah’s uncle)vs.‘Utbah ibn Rabi’a; 2) Ali (Rasoolullah’s cousin)vs.Al-Waleed ibn ‘Utbah; 3) ‘Ubaidah ibn al Harith vs. Shaybah ibn Rabi’a In the former two cases, Hamza and Ali killed their opponents, but ‘Ubaidah (despite killing his opponent) was severely wounded and died about four or five days later. The fighting intensified, and many more duels broke out. In the midst of all of this, Rasoolullah (saws) continued to supplicate his Lord. He (saws) said, “O Allah! Should this group (of Muslims) be defeated today, You will no longer be worshipped.”Abu Bakr witnessed this incessant supplication so He said to Rasoolullah (saws), “O Rasoolullah, you have cried out enough to your Lord. He will surely fulfill what He has promised you.” [Source: Internet Archive, from islaam.com]
Battle of Badr
“Immediate was the response of Allah (swt), Who sent down angels from the heavens for the help and assistance of Rasoolullah (saw) and his companions. The Quran marks this miraculous occurance: “I will help you with a thousand of the angels each behind the other (following one another) in succession.” Quran [8:9] Rasoolullah (saws), in his hut, dozed off a little and then raised his head joyfully crying and said, “O Abu Bakr! glad tidings are there for you. Allah’s victory has approached. By Allah, I can see Jibreel on his mare in the thick of a sandstorm.” Then he came out of the hut and exclaimed: “sayuhzamul jam’u wa yuwwalloonad-dubur” Quran [54:45] (Their multitude will be put to flight, and they will show their backs.) This is in fact one of the miracles of the Quran becuase this verse was revealed in Mecca before any of these events at Badr had taken place.
“Omar (ra), upon hearing Rasoolullah (saws) proclaim this verse on this occasion said, “When this verse was first revealed, I asked Rasoolullah what it means. What multitude? What deafeat? And Rasoolullah (saws) didn’t answer me. But when I saw him recite it on that occasion, I then understood.” Then Rasoolullah (saws) took a handful of dust and cast it at the enemy and said : Confusion seize their faces!” As he flung the dust, a violent sandstorm blew like furnace blast into the eyes of the enemy. About this, Allah says: “And you (i.e. Muhammad -saws) threw not when you did throw, but Allah threw.” [8:17] It was at this point that Rasoolullah (saws) gave orders to launch a full counter-attack. He incited the believers reciting the following verse: “And be quick for forgiveness from your Lord, and for Paradise as wide as are the heavens and earth.” [3:133] The spirit of the Muslims was at it peak and they fought with the untmost courage and bravery severly wounding the Quraish army, killing many of their men and instilling fear in their hearts. The Muslims did not know that Allah’s help was about to descend upon them. They only knew the odds that were apparent to both sides: 100 against 300, 700 camels against 70 camels, 100 horses against 2, enourmous provisions against none, an intent and preparation for war against an unprepared group of believers. Still, despite all odds, they had trust in Allah (swt) and His Messenger and they were willing and even hoping to give their lives of this dunya for the ever-lasting abode of Jannah. Because of their devotion Allah (swt) sent His help and victory.
“In addition to sending down angels, Allah (swt) also brought another miraculous occurence to ensure the Muslim victory. Allah says: "“(And remember) When Allah showed them to you (Muhammad) as few in your dream, if He had shown them to you as many, you would have surely have disputed in making a decision. But Allah saved (you). Certainly, He is the AllKnower of what is in the breasts.'” [8:43] And indeed, Allah (swt) did fulfill His promise: “And (remember) when you met (the army of the disbelievers on the Day of the battle of Badr), He showed them to you as few in your eyes and He made you appear as few in their eyes, so that Allah might accomplish a matter already ordained (in His Knowledge), and to Allah return all matters (for decision).” [8:44] Many of the disbelievers were killed in this battle, the most noteworthy of which was Abu Jahl, the archenemy of Islam. When Rasoolullah (saws) set out to look at his corpse, he (saws) said, "“This is the Pharaoh of this nation."” And so the Muslims defeated the disbelievers in a humiliating defeat by the Help of Allah (swt). Indeed Allah, again, fulfilled His promise, "“Their multitude will be put to flight, and they will show their backs”" [54:45] The disbelievers, with all their might, turned their backs and ran away from the Muslims in disgrace and utter humiliation. Allahu Akbar wa lillah al Hamd.”
Muhammad Returns to Mecca and Cleanses the Kaaba
Muhammad and the Kaaba In A.D. 630, after client tribes of Mecca and Medina clashed, Muhammad declared the truce broken and moved against Mecca. He returned to Mecca eight years after being exiled, accompanied by a large military force of perhaps 10,000 troops. Realizing that defeat would probably be their fate if they opposed the Muslims, Meccan leaders opened their gates to Muhammad, who entered the city without bloodshed or forcing anyone to convert to Islam.
Muhammad’s return to Mecca allowed him to fulfill a promise he made to Gabriel in A.D. 610 to cleanse the Kaaba of idols. Muhammad touched the black stone and circled the Kaaba seven times. He cleansed the Kaaba by smashing the idols and then dedicated the empty box to the worship of one God. One early Arabic source wrote the Kaaba contained paintings as well as statues and that Muhammad ordered them all destroyed except for a mural of Jesus and the Virgin Mary which were spared, some suggest, so as not to offend Muslim that had converted from Christianity.
Just as Muslims do today, Muhammad touched the Black Stone and circled the Kaaba seven times before he ordered all stone idols smashed. Afterwards the pagan Meccans were offered amnesty and one by one, the Qur’an says, they filed by Muhammad offering their submission before God.∞∞
Muhammad called for a cloak to spread on the ground at the base of the Kaaba and ordered the black stone to be placed on it. With a noble of each major tribe holding a corner, he ordered the cloak to be raised, He then took the black stone and placed in the spot it remains today. Meccans filed past the Kaaba and declared their allegiance to Allah. Many of pagan rites that revolved around the Kaaba and Mecca were linked to the stories of Abraham, Hagar and Ismail and presumably without much alteration they became Islam rites.
In some accounts Abraham built or rebuilt the Kaaba. The Qur’an states that as he and his son rebuilt the Kaaba walls they prayed: “My Lord, make this a City of Peace.” Muhammad wanted Muslims to constantly remind themselves of their line to Abraham. When his companions asked him how this should be achieved, Muhammad replied: “Say: may the blessings of God be upon Muhammad and his progeny” and then say “May the blessings of God be upon Abraham and his progeny.” This is now part of Muslims’ daily prayers.
Muhammad’s Governance of Mecca
In 629 Muhammad extended Muslim governance over the Hejaz, in central Arabia, and led the pilgrimage to Mecca. In 630 the feud between Mecca and Medina came to an end. After 20 years Muhammad had successfully returned to Mecca and brought it within the Pax Islamica. In victory Muhammad proved magnanimous and strategic, preferring diplomacy to force. [Source: John L. Esposito “Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices”, 2000s, Encyclopedia.com]
Rather than engaging in vengeance and plunder, he offered amnesty to his former enemies, rewarding a number of its leaders with prominent positions and gifts. Regarding the Kaaba shrine in Mecca as the original house of God built by Abraham and Ismail, Muhammad destroyed its pagan idols and rededicated it to the one true God. The majority of Meccans converted to Islam, accepted Muhammad's leadership, and became part of the Islamic community.
The conquest of Mecca established Muhammad's paramount political leadership. He continued to employ his religious message, diplomatic skills, and, when necessary, force to establish Muslim rule in Arabia. In 632 the 62-year-old Muhammad led a pilgrimage to Mecca and delivered his farewell sermon, a moment remembered and commemorated each year during the annual pilgrimage: "Know ye that every Muslim is a brother unto every other Muslim, and that ye are now one brotherhood. It is not legitimate for any one of you, therefore, to appropriate unto himself anything that belongs to his brother unless it is willingly given him by that brother." When Muhammad died in June 632, all of Arabia was united under the banner of Islam.
Muhammad's Last Sermon
The Prophet Muhammad’s final sermon was delivered during the Hajj of the year 632 C.E., the ninth day of Dhul Hijjah, the 12th month of the lunar year, at Arafat outside Mecca. It is said there were countless Muslims present with the Prophet during his last pilgrimage. Muhammad’s farewell pilgrimage to Mecca is one of the most significant historical events in the minds of Muslims, for it was the first and last pilgrimage made by Prophet Muhammad, as well as being the model for performing the fifth pillar of Islam, the Hajj.
Muhammad in Heaven (from Topkapi Palace in Istanbul)
Omar Akour and Ahmed Hatem of Associated Press wrote: “In his sermon, the prophet called on his followers to repay their debts, beware of Satan, perform five daily prayers, fast during the month of Ramadan and give to charity. He also called on those with the means to perform the hajj once in a lifetime. He also reminded worshippers of the rights that women have, and said that no ethnic group or race has superiority over another except in piety and good action. [Source: Omar Akour and Ahmed Hatem, Associated Press, August 31, 2017]
Muhammad’s Last Sermon, delivered on the Ninth Day of Dhul Hijjah 10 A.H in the Uranah Valley of Mount Arafat, goes: "O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I don't know whether, after this year, I shall ever be amongst you again. Therefore listen to what I am saying to you carefully and TAKE THIS WORDS TO THOSE WHO COULD NOT BE PRESENT HERE TODAY. “O People, just as you regard this month, this day, this city as Sacred, so regard the life and property of every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your LORD, and that HE will indeed reckon your deeds. ALLAH has forbidden you to take usury (Interest), therefore all interest obligation shall henceforth be waived...
“Beware of Satan, for your safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things.
“O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have right over you. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and comitted helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well as never to commit adultery.
“O People, listen to me in earnest, worship ALLAH, say your five daily prayers (Salah), fast during the month of Ramadhan, and give your wealth in Zakat. Perform Hajj if you can afford to. You know that every Muslim is the brother of another Muslim. YOU ARE ALL EQUAL. NOBODY HAS SUPERIORITY OVER OTHER EXCEPT BY PIETY AND GOOD ACTION.
“Remember, one day you will appear before ALLAH and answer for your deeds. So beware, do not astray from the path of righteousness after I am gone.
“O People, NO PROPHET OR APOSTLE WILL COME AFTER ME AND NO NEW FAITH WILL BE BORN. Reason well, therefore, O People, and understand my words which I convey to you. I leave behind me two things, the QUR'AN and my example, the SUNNAH and if you follow these you will never go astray.
“All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again; and may the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to me direcly. BE MY WITNESS O ALLAH THAT I HAVE CONVEYED YOUR MESSAGE TO YOUR PEOPLE."
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: Internet Islamic History Sourcebook: sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Arab News, Jeddah; “Islam, a Short History” by Karen Armstrong; “A History of the Arab Peoples” by Albert Hourani (Faber and Faber, 1991); “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions” edited by R.C. Zaehner (Barnes & Noble Books, 1959); Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, BBC, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, The Guardian, Al Jazeera, Times of London, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Library of Congress and various books and other publications.
Last updated April 2024