David Before He Was the King: His Early Life, Saul and Rise to Power | Middle East And North Africa

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DAVID

David attacks the Ammonites

David is one the greatest figures in the Bible. The founder and king of the first and largest Jewish kingdom, he was called the “Shepherd King” because of his humble origins. His story is told with great detail in the Bible. As a young man he became the head of an outlaw religious movement, achieved military successes against great odds and established a covenant "in divine partnership” with the Jewish God Jahweh. David is credited with writing the Psalms and was regarded as a political and military genius.

Robert Draper wrote in National Geographic: That narrative is familiar to any student of the Bible. A young shepherd named David from the tribe of Judah slays the giant Goliath from the enemy tribe of the Philistines, is elevated to king of Judah following the death of Saul at the close of the 11th century B.C., conquers Jerusalem, unites the people of Judah with the disparate Israelite tribes to the north, and thereupon amasses a royal dynasty that continues with Solomon well into the tenth century B.C.[Source: Robert Draper, National Geographic, December 2010]

Some scholars believe that much of the Old Testament was written in David’s time and that his story was sanitized and his shortcomings were edited to give his rule legitimacy. Other scholars argue that David was a tribal chieftain not a great king and that at best the Jewish kingdom was a modest tribal domain. What is more they say David was not a flawed but heroic leader but a bandit, double crosser and scoundrel who achieved success through ruthlessness and deceit. There has been speculation that David was not even a Jew. One passage of the Bible list the name of David’s bodyguards. Many of them have non-Hebrew names. Draper wrote The "Solomonic" buildings excavated by biblical archaeologists over the past several decades at Hazor, Gezer, and Megiddo were not constructed in David and Solomon's time, he says, and so must have been built by kings of the ninth-century B.C.'s Omride dynasty, well after David and Solomon's reign. [Source: Robert Draper, National Geographic, December 2010]

Book: “King David” by Steven L. McKenzie (Oxford University Press, 2000)

Websites and Resources: Virtual Jewish Library jewishvirtuallibrary.org/index ; Judaism101 jewfaq.org ; torah.org torah.org ; Chabad,org chabad.org/library/bible ; Bible and Biblical History: ; Biblical Archaeology Society biblicalarchaeology.org ; Bible History Online bible-history.com Bible Gateway and the New International Version (NIV) of The Bible biblegateway.com ; King James Version of the Bible gutenberg.org/ebooks ; Jewish History: Jewish History Timeline jewishhistory.org.il/history Jewish History Resource Center dinur.org ; Center for Jewish History cjh.org ; Jewish History.org jewishhistory.org ; Internet Jewish History Sourcebook sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Christianity: BBC on Christianity bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity ; Christian Classics Ethereal Library www.ccel.org ; Sacred Texts website sacred-texts.com ;

David the Great Hero

Dr R. W. L. Moberly of University of Durham wrote for the BBC: “The legendary battle between the overgrown Philistine warrior Goliath and the humble shepherd boy David is an archetype which has resonance well beyond the Old Testament account. Whenever a lower division football club thwarts a premier squad in a giant-slaying encounter it is celebrated as a 'David and Goliath' event. The defiant courage of the underdog appeals to our deep-seated emotional need to witness the powerless turning the tables, for once, on the powerful. [Source: Dr R. W. L. Moberly, University of Durham, [Source: BBC June 25, 2009 |::|]

“But for Christians and Jews the story of David is far more than an implausible folk-legend. The Old Testament recounts not only David's heroic deeds as a young boy but chronicles his whole eventful life as the first King of Israel to really unite the nation. After Jesus, his is the most complete biography in the Bible and is packed with schismic political events, epic battles and great personal drama. |::|

“Samuel 1 and 2 document David's testing time on the run from the mentally unhinged King Saul, his pitched battles with the heathen Philistines, his triumphant taking of Jerusalem as his capital, the adulterous affair with Bathsheba and the rebellion of his son Absalom. And if that wasn't enough, Christians believe that 1000 years later, as prophesised, Jesus was born into the house of David.

“David is celebrated as a warrior, prophet, musician and lover; the ultimate Renaissance man if you like. He is credited with writing many of the Old Testament Psalms, composed no doubt on his famous lyre on which he was said to be a virtuoso. His brilliant strategic mind enabled the Israelite army to crush the 'barbaric' Philistines on numerous occasions. The canny leader sent a crack squad of his troops through the ancient water systems underneath the hill-top fortress town of Jerusalem. In a heroic Trojan-horse style attack his forces took the strategically important position and made it his capital. From here he united the 12 tribally disparate regions in Judea and Israel to form a united nation of Israel. David consolidated his territory by beating back neighbouring tribes and providing strong leadership.” |::|

David’s Personality

Saul and young David

Gerald A. Larue wrote in “Old Testament Life and Literature”: “The identity of the author of the early account has been debated many times. It is recorded that David had a scribe and a recorder in his court (II Sam. 8:16 f., 20:23 f.) ; perhaps it can be assumed that it would be the function of these officers to record the royal transactions and to prepare a daily chronicle or what might be called a "history" of royal events. Such documents might have provided the basic materials for the historian of the Davidic account. Whether or not personal memoirs were also employed cannot be known. Many scholars are convinced that the writer was someone close to the court, and both Abiathar, David's priest, and Ahimaaz, Solomon's son-in-law, have been suggested. Whoever the writer was, the tragic decline of David's career, beginning with his association with Bathsheba, was sketched with artistic skill. [Source: Gerald A. Larue, “Old Testament Life and Literature,” 1968, infidels.org]

“David is never permitted to become, as idealized personalities often do, someone removed, unreal, and too good to be true. He is introduced as a young court musician whose winsome personality soon made him a favorite and won for him the friendship of Jonathan. As they participated in military forays, David's skill as a warrior brought him fame and popularity. At what point David realized that he might become king is not revealed by the biographer. As a refugee among the Philistines and as a chief of an outlaw band, he had the opportunity to test his ability to lead and administer. When Saul and Jonathan were both dead, David was a natural contender for the throne, and it is at this point that the biographer reveals how well David had learned to manipulate men and situations to his own advantage. Even a tragedy, such as the death of Abner, could be converted into a step toward power. [Source: Gerald A. Larue, “Old Testament Life and Literature,” 1968, infidels.org]

“Another aspect of David's personality - his utter ruthlessness in achieving his ends - is disclosed in the story of the murder of Uriah. Some hint of this side of David's character was foreshadowed in his callous attitude toward Nabal, and if it is true that the aged king asked Solomon to kill Joab and Shimei, a vindictive trait is exposed. The closing years of his reign could not have been particularly happy ones for David. Family tragedies, such as the rape of Tamar, the murder of Amnon, and the rebellion of Absalom, must have burdened the king. Finally, he appears as a confused old man, physically enfeebled, impotent and no longer an adequate symbol of the vigor of the nation. To save his crown and perhaps himself from Adonijah, he was compelled to share his throne with his son Solomon. Whereas Saul emerged as a tragic figure, the last pictures of David are of a pathetic hero.

David’s Early Life

David, the young shepherd

David was born Elhanan be Jesse in Bethlehem about a thousand years before Jesus Christ. For centuries Bethlehem was known as the “City of David.” David was the youngest son of Jesse. His mother’s name was not recorded. The name David (meaning "great commander") was later given to him to commemorate his victories on the battlefield.

As a boy, David was a shepherd. To while away the hours in the fields he learned to play the harp and to hurl stones with a sling with great accuracy. These skills would later serve him well.

Samuel, the first of the Prophets and the last of the judges of Israel, was sent by God to Bethlehem. There he saw David and predicted that he would one day be the king of Israel. According to I Samuel 16:12,”He was ruddy and had beautiful eyes and was handsome. And the Lord said, “Rise anoint him, for this is the one.” Samuel anointed David “in the midst of his brethren: and the Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day forward.”

Robert Draper wrote in National Geographic: The books of the Old Testament outlining the story of David and Solomon consist of scriptures probably written at least 300 years after the fact, by not-so-objective authors. No contemporaneous texts exist to validate their claims. Since the dawn of biblical archaeology, scholars have sought in vain to verify that there really was an Abraham, a Moses, an Exodus, a conquest of Jericho. At the same time, says Amihai Mazar, among Israel's most highly regarded archaeologists, "Almost everyone agrees that the Bible is an ancient text relating to the history of this country during the Iron Age. You can look at it critically, as many scholars do. But you can't ignore the text — you must relate to it." [Source: Robert Draper, National Geographic, December 2010]

Tel Aviv University's Israel Finkelstein believes that during David's time Jerusalem was little more than a "hill-country village," David himself a raggedy upstart akin to Pancho Villa, and his legion of followers more like "500 people with sticks in their hands shouting and cursing and spitting — not the stuff of great armies of chariots described in the text." He told National Geographic: "Look, when I'm doing research, I have to distinguish between the culture of David and the historical David. David is extremely important for my cultural identity. In the same way, I can celebrate the Exodus without seeing it as a purely historic event. David for me is the David reflected in the later king Hezekiah, the David reflected in the later king Josiah, the David of Zacharias in the eschatological prophesies in which Jerusalem is burned but David is alive, the David who is the connection with the beginning of Christianity. In this sense, David is everything. If you want me to say it simplistically, I'm proud that this nobody from nowhere became the center of Western tradition. So for me David is not a plaque on the wall, not even merely a leader of a tenth-century band. No. Much more than that."

David and Goliath

David and Goliath

The most famous story with David involved his fight against Goliath of Gath, a Philistine giant, who, according to the Bible, was "six cubits and a span" (9 feet 6½ inches). Most historians believe he was only about 6 feet 10 inches.

The Philistines had issued a challenge for someone from the Jewish kingdom to fight Goliath, who carried a spear with a 20-pound head of iron and a shaft “like a weaver’s beam” and wore a huge brass helmet and a coat of mail that weighed 160 pounds. No one came forward to take up the challenge. David was delivering cheeses to three of his brothers when the challenge was made. He appeared to confront Goliath. He wore not armor; he was dressed only in shepherd’s garments. His only weapon was a sling and five smooth stones. As Goliath approached him he placed a stone in the sling and let it fly. The stone penetrated Goliath’s forehead and killed him. David cut off his head and presented it to the Jewish king. The event if it really took place occurred around 1060 B.C.

Candida Moss wrote in the Daily Beast: According to 1 Samuel, the Israelites were encamped there, facing the Philistines in a standoff. Twice a day for 40 days Goliath, the Philistine champion, would leave the encampment to challenge the Israelites to send a representative to engage in one-on-one combat. The winner would determine the outcome of the war. The natural candidate was Saul, who was not just the tallest member of the group but also their king. Saul was something of a coward and refused to accept the challenge, and David volunteered to fight Goliath instead. Declining to accept Saul’s reluctant offer of armor, David went out into the field of battle armed only with his shepherd’s staff, a slingshot and some stones he had taken from a stream. Proclaiming that the battle’s outcome is God’s, David launched a pebble at Goliath’s forehead, and the giant dropped dead onto the ground. David decapitated his corpse and the Philistines fled. The battle is won and David is on the path to becoming Israel’s most famous king. [Source: Candida Moss, Daily Beast, December 6, 2020]

David and Saul

When David was a young man, Saul was the King of Israel. As Saul fell out of favor with God he became depressed. Once, he asked for music to cheer him. David was summoned and asked to his play his harp. Saul was so overcome with David’s good looks and his harp playing the king made David his armor bearer and musician. David became good friends with Saul’s son Jonathan, who later gave David his sword and bow. With these he established himself as a great warrior in battles against the Philistines. As David’s exploits became widely known. Saul began to fear that the Jewish people would make him their king. Saul tried repeatedly too kill David. Once he threw a spear at David while he played the harp in the king’s court. Ultimately David was forced to flee.

20120502-David Saul_and_David_rembrandt.jpg
Saul and David by Rembrandt
Dr R. W. L. Moberly of University of Durham wrote for the BBC: “David, still a shepherd, is bringing provisions for his brothers in the Israelite army. He is dismayed by Israel's fear of Goliath. King Saul hears of David's attitude and sends for him. When David offers to fight in single combat, Saul dismisses the idea as a joke. But, as a shepherd, David has learned to trust God in the face of terrifying opposition.“David stuns Goliath with a stone from his sling, and when Goliath falls to the ground David makes his triumph complete by cutting off Goliath's head with Goliath's own sword. This is the story of a young person who trusts God against all the odds, and to whom God gives success. [Source: Dr R. W. L. Moberly, University of Durham, [Source: BBC June 25, 2009 |::|]

Gerald A. Larue wrote in “Old Testament Life and Literature: “Larue wrote in “Old Testament Life and Literature”: A "cycle of stories describes the decline of Saul's power and the rise of the Davidic line. The account of Saul's failure to destroy everything and everybody in the Amalakite war, thereby offending Yahweh (ch. 15), makes the transition from the previous material. The story of the divine choice and secret anointing of David (16:1-13) is late. [Source:Gerald A. Larue, “Old Testament Life and Literature,” 1968, infidels.org ]

“The earliest tradition of David's coming to Saul's court begins in I Sam. 16:14-23. A mental illness, diagnosed as an evil spirit sent by God, troubled Saul. Music soothed him, and David, a skilled musician, was brought to play the lyre. As a member of the royal household, David won Saul's affection (16:21), became a bosom friend of Jonathan (18:3 ff.), and married Saul's daughter Michal (18:20 ff.). Participating in the military forays against the Philistines, David excelled as a warrior and became, to the women of Israel, a popular hero and the subject of a chant:

Rivalry Between David and Saul

Dr R. W. L. Moberly of University of Durham wrote for the BBC: “The next phase in David's life is far from straightforward. Saul takes David to court, and sends him out on military campaigns. Saul becomes envious of David and becomes suspicious that David might want to usurp him. This is not helped by the fact that Saul's son and heir, Jonathan, has become deeply attached to David, and Saul's daughter Michal loves him. Saul's suspicions quickly become paranoia, and David has to flee for his life and live rough. |::|[Source: Dr R. W. L. Moberly, University of Durham, [Source: BBC June 25, 2009 |::|]

“After a while David decides that there is little point in constantly being on the run from Saul, and he moves to the territory of Israel's enemies, the Philistines. Here he agrees to serve as a mercenary, in return for a whole town for himself and his men to live in. |::|

“Then the Philistines go to war against Israel. David is expected to come with them and fight Israelites on their behalf, and is in no position to refuse. Yet some of the Philistine generals become suspicious of David; perhaps he might change sides in mid-battle. At their insistence David is dismissed from the Philistine army - providentially now he is spared from shedding Israelite blood. He is not there when the Philistines defeat Israel and Saul and Jonathan die.

Larue wrote in “Old Testament Life and Literature”: "Saul has slain his thousands, But David his ten thousands." - I Sam. 18:7: Such repute evoked jealous hostility from Saul who recognized in David a potential rival for the kingship. One tradition suggests that David's marriage to Michal was sanctioned by Saul because the king saw a way to get rid of David by demanding a marriage price10 of 100 Philistine foreskins (18:25 ff.). A later editor explained that David presented 200 foreskins, not the required one hundred. Thwarted in his attempt to eliminate his rival, Saul sought to kill David on the night of the wedding but Michal's clever ruse saved David's life (19:11-17). David, with the band of guerrilla warriors, fled to the wilderness (23:6-15). [Source: Gerald A. Larue, “Old Testament Life and Literature,” 1968, infidels.org ]

“A later and completely different record of the development of David's warrior reputation and early relations with Saul, preserved in Chapter 17, tells of the slaying of the Philistine giant, Goliath. But even here, two traditions are merged. In one David is described as leaving Saul's court to do battle (17:1-12, 32-54) ; in the other David had not yet met Saul but brought provender for his brothers in Saul's army. Troubled by Goliath's taunts, David killed the giant with a stone from his sling.11 Only then was he introduced to Saul (17:12-30, 55-58; 18:1-2; 17:31 is a transitional verse). Another popular folk tale credits one of David's soldiers, Elhanan, with killing Goliath (II Sam. 21:19), leading some scholars to speculate that perhaps the hero David usurped a title of "giant killer" rightfully belonging to another.

Saul spears David

“Traditions blackening Saul and enhancing David's reputation expand the story of David's marriage into Saul's family (18:10-19) and the tradition of Jonathan's affection for David (19:1-10; 20:1-42).12 The approval and protection of David by the prophets is recounted in 19:18-24. Saul's reputation suffers further in the story of the flight of David's parents to Moab (22:1-5). Even the expanded accounts of David's wilderness adventures and his merciful action in saving Saul's life13 magnify David's heroic stature (23:15-24:22). The section closes with an editorial report of Samuel's death (25:1).

“The early tradition continues in Chapter 25 with the story of Nabal ("fool" - see 25:25). David, with his armed guerrillas, guaranteed protection from plunder if material support for himself and his men was promised (25:21). Nabal refused to pay and David prepared to raid his holdings. By taking goods to David's camp, Nabal's wife, Abigail, saved the situation (25:23 ff.). Abigail's presentation speech has been expanded by later writers (verses 28-31 were probably additions). Upon learning of his wife's action Nabal suffered a paralytic stroke and soon died; David married Abigail. Meanwhile, Saul gave Michal, David's first wife, to another man, Palti. David acquired still another wife, Ahinoam (25:43 f.).

“Saul continued his pursuit of David. At one point David could have killed the king, but fear of the taboo of killing Yahweh's anointed prevented him (ch. 26). David's speech to Saul on this occasion reflects the belief that Yahweh could only be worshiped within his own territory (26:19), indicating that religious belief of this period was monolatrous rather than monotheistic.14

Rise of David, Decline of Saul

Larue wrote in “Old Testament Life and Literature”: “Convinced that Saul would not cease in the attempt to destroy him, David joined the Philistines. His adventures are recorded in Chapters 27; 28:1-2; 29; 30. His Philistine allies believed he raided Judaean towns (in reality he was plundering desert tribal groups) and gave him the city of Ziklag (location unknown). Meanwhile David courted the Hebrews, sharing booty with Judaean cities. A tense moment came when the Philistines prepared to attack the Hebrews at Mount Gilboa and included David in the forces. Fortunately, certain Philistine leaders distrusted him and insisted that he be sent back to Ziklag (ch. 29). Meanwhile Ziklag had been raided by the Amalakites and the inhabitants, including David's two wives, had been led away as captives. David pursued and rescued his people (ch. 30). [Source: Gerald A. Larue, “Old Testament Life and Literature,” 1968, infidels.org ]

“The end of Saul's leadership in the Hebrew kingdom was at hand and the tragic decline of the first monarch in Israel is movingly portrayed in his desperate search for supernatural guidance (ch. 28:3-25, where Samuel's death is reported once again). Rejected by Yahweh, unable to receive an oracle through regular channels or communication with the deity (28:6), Saul turned to a necromancer - one who consorted with the dead. The prophet Samuel was raised (visible only to the medium) and Israel's defeat and Saul's death were foretold. The story, probably more interpretive than factual, indicates belief in the continued existence of the individual in Sheol, the place of the dead, but the nature of this existence is not clear.

“The battle of Mount Gilboa is briefly reported (ch. 31). Saul's sons were killed, and Saul, to prevent capture and torture, committed suicide. His decapitated body and the bodies of his sons were nailed to the wall of the city of Beth Shan as a final token of Philistine derision and defilement. Saul's head was sent throughout the Philistine kingdom as a proof of the monarch's death. The people of Jabesh-Gilead, remembering perhaps their earlier deliverance by Saul, rescued the bodies and provided proper burial for the members of the royal family. Thus Saul's regal career ended as it had begun, with the people of Jabesh-Gilead.

A slightly different report of Saul's death is put in the mouth of the Amalakite courier who informs David of the death and presents Saul's crown and personal amulet as verification. David's lament, which the editor notes is taken from the Book of the Upright (Jashar) - a work unfortunately lost to us - is generally conceded to be one of the oldest fragments of Hebrew literature in the Bible, and there seems to be no reason to question its authenticity as a Davidic song. The poem displays strong emotion, particularly concerning Jonathan's death (II Sam. 1:25b-26).

David Takes Over Power from Saul

Death of Saul

Gerald A. Larue wrote in “Old Testament Life and Literature”: “The way was open for David to assume the throne: Jonathan, the natural successor, was dead; David had won recognition as a popular hero and a military expert, and had gained the loyalty of the southern cities of the Hebrew nation by sharing booty with them. His marriage to Michal, Saul's daughter, might also have been significant for it related David to the royal household.

“David's first move was to Hebron where he was anointed king over "the house of Judah" (II Sam. 2:2 f.). The groups forming "the house" are not indicated, but Martin Noth has suggested that a six-tribe confederation consisting of Judah, Caleb, Othniel, Cain, Jerahmeel and Simeon might have been involved. Apparently the Philistines were unconcerned, for they counted David as an ally. David now began to woo the northern groups. A letter to Jabesh-Gilead commended the people for providing proper burial for Saul and Jonathan, offered David's support and reminded them that David was now king (II Sam. 2:5-7).

“But the northern tribes had taken other action. Abner, Saul's commander-in-chief, had Saul's fourth son, Ishbaal, appointed king in Israel. No mention of Ishbaal has been made prior to this time, and nothing is known of him apart from a note appended by a Deuteronomic redactor to the effect that he was forty years old at this time (II Sam. 2:10-11).

“A curious episode interrupts the narrative to explain the hostility between Abner, commander of the army of Ishbaal, and Joab, commander of David's forces. Twelve men from each of the armies engaged in a contest in which combatants paired off, each placed one hand upon the head of the adversary and with the free hand sought to thrust him through with a sword. The significance of this strange match is not known, although a relief from Tel Halaf depicts men in this very position. Abner's men were defeated and Abner and those who remained fled. In the pursuit, Asahel, a brother of Joab, followed Abner and was killed by the more experienced warrior. The battle marked the beginning of a protracted struggle between Ishbaal and David in which "David grew stronger and stronger, while the house of Saul became weaker and weaker" (II Sam. 3:1). Later, a literal-minded editor inserted an isolated fragment about David's family, portraying David's growth in strength in terms of his six wives and six sons (II Sam. 3:2-3).

“Now problems developed within Ishbaal's household. Abner took one of Saul's concubines for himself and inasmuch as the taking of a king's widow could be construed as seeking to take the place of the dead king, Ishbaal questioned Abner's intentions. Angered by the accusation (which may have been justified), Abner offered to bring Israel under David's control if David would enter into a covenant with him. What Abner was to gain is not stated, unless it would be a guarantee of safety and security and position with David. David accepted but demanded the return of his wife Michal, Saul's daughter. Once this action, a token of good intention, had been taken, Abner began to undermine Ishbaal's position among the northern tribesmen. Subsequently twenty northern leaders and Abner participated in a feast as David's guests to plan strategy for bringing Israel under Davidic rule.

“But David had failed to consider Joab. As redeemer-of-blood7 for the death of his brother, he killed Abner, placing David in the embarrassing position of having to retain his friendship with Joab and hold the loyalty of the northern tribesmen with whom he had broken bread. The compromise was effected by David's denial of any part in Abner's death, by his public lamentation in which he composed a dirge for Abner, and by the participation of Joab in the mourning rites. The dirge (II Sam. 3:31-34), like that for Saul and Jonathan, may be a Davidic composition.

“The report of Abner's death in the northern kingdom was accepted as a sign of impending doom. Ishbaal was murdered by two military leaders who removed his head and brought it to David, seeking his favor (II Sam. 4:4-11). Although he had gained politically through this event, David could not afford to express approval. The two were promptly executed (II Sam. 4:12).”

David Becomes King

David became king of the Jews after Saul was killed by Philistines in a battle on Mount Golbia after he lost favor with God. The Philistines were helped by the fact that David had a formidable army in southern Israel and Saul had to be prepared for a fight on two fronts.

David was anointed the king in the southern city of Hebron. David had a covenant with God that stated that David's Jewish nation would never be conquered. This mirrored what God had earlier told Moses: "ye shall rule over many nations but they shall not rule over thee.” David ruled the Israelites from Hebron before he made is move on Jerusalem.

Gerald A. Larue wrote in “Old Testament Life and Literature”: “All opposition was now removed and David entered into a covenant with the northern tribes and was anointed king at Hebron (II Sam. 5:1-3). His role as "shepherd" of Yahweh's people was carefully delineated, and it is possible that the covenant took the form of a written contract agreed to by both parties, sworn to before Yahweh, and deposited in the Hebron sanctuary. Through this event the tribes of the north and of the south, first brought together through a national emergency under Saul, accepted the concept of nationhood. Undoubtedly the nation was weak and, without continuing crises, could easily have disintegrated through national suspicions and jealousies. Apparently David recognized the uneasy nature of the bond and took steps to consolidate the kingdom. The neutral Jebusite city of Jerusalem, which had remained free of Hebraic control up to that time, was taken, and this strong fortified hill-city strategically located near the border between the north and south, became the capital. [Source: Gerald A. Larue, “Old Testament Life and Literature,” 1968, infidels.org ]

Image Sources: Wikimedia, Commons, Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bible in Bildern, 1860

Text Sources: Internet Jewish History Sourcebook sourcebooks.fordham.edu “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “ Encyclopedia of the World’s Religions” edited by R.C. Zaehner (Barnes & Noble Books, 1959); “Old Testament Life and Literature” by Gerald A. Larue, New International Version (NIV) of The Bible, biblegateway.com; Wikipedia, Live Science, Archaeology magazine, National Geographic, BBC, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Times of London, The New Yorker, Reuters, AP, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, and various books and other publications.

Last updated March 2024