Early Arab-muslim Rule: Caliphs, Military, Administration

Home | Category: Muhammad and the Arab Conquest / Arab Conquest After Muhammad / Arab Conquest After Muhammad

EARLY ARAB-MUSLIM RULE

---

After being stopped at Tours in France and held in check by the Byzantines and Chinese, the Muslims settled down in their newly won lands and began governing them and developing culture. The main centers were in Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo and Cordoba.

The rapid and widespread expansion of Islam as both a religious community and a social community created a political community that stretched from China to Europe. People from different cultures were unified with a common set of values. Although Muslim rulers imposed taxes on non-Muslims that Muslims were not required to pay, these taxes were often less severe than those collected by local rulers. On top of this, the Qurʾan calls on all Muslims to respect Christians and Jews as "People of the Book". There are examples of different religious communities being so close they shared places of worship. In Syria, for instance, Christians and Muslims shared the Church of St. John the Baptist. Muslims used the church as a mosque on Saturdays, while Christians used it on Sundays. [Source: Encyclopedia.com]

Conquering Arabs remained a minority at first. They tolerated Christians and Jews as "People of Book" and used taxes to build empire. Over the centuries the population in the Arab-Muslim controlled lands converted to Islam, encouraged by tax breaks and job opportunities.

In the central and western parts of the Arab-Muslim empire Arabic became the dominate language, but in the east indigenous languages dominated. In the places that became Arabic-speaking, the Arabs were able to impose their culture and not absorb the local cultures partly because their religious book was written in Arabic, and could not be translated, hence Arabic became the dominant language at the expense of the local one.

Websites on Islamic History: History of Islam: An encyclopedia of Islamic history historyofislam.com ; Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World oxfordislamicstudies.com ; Sacred Footsetps sacredfootsteps.com ; Islamic History Resources uga.edu/islam/history ; Internet Islamic History Sourcebook fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook ; Islamic History friesian.com/islam ; Muslim Heritage muslimheritage.com ; Chronological history of Islam barkati.net

How Arab-Islamic Rule Gained Traction

Charles F. Gallagher wrote in “International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences”: Islam established itself not only as a corpus of religious belief but equally as a political community (ummah) provided with its own laws and embryonic govern-mental and social institutions. The significance and uniqueness of this twin foundation structure is recognized in the well-known dictum, “Islam is a religion and a state,” which is interpreted, however, by Muslims in a unitary meaning rather than implying any dualism. [Source: Charles F. Gallagher, “International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences”, 1960s, Encyclopedia.com]

The century following Muhammad’s death saw a far-reaching series of conquests by the new Muslim armies. Their spectacular successes and the way in which ancient communities and seemingly powerful states succumbed with little resistance testify to underlying weaknesses in the existing order but also say something of the fresh appeal Islam had for peoples in the Middle East at a time when they were exhausted by internecine struggles and doctrinal quarrels. However, the large number of conversions to Islam at this period may be said to have stemmed more from socioeconomic causes than from religious motivation, although these in the end had repercussions on both the faith itself and the subsequent nature of the Islamic state.

In the Fertile Crescent area and in Egypt the numerous Christian and Jewish communities were legally allowed to continue practicing their religion, but inequalities in taxation which favored Muslims, and the natural social desire to become full members of the body politic with all its advantages, furthered Islamization. In Iran multiple causes conditioned conversion: the desire of the bureaucracy to preserve its privileges, the reluctance of the landed nobility to pay the poll tax, and the wish on the part of the merchant class to have a full share in the material culture of the Islamic empire. In north Africa pagan or semi-Christianized Berbers were more often either genuinely influenced by the tenets of Islam or spontaneously gave their allegiance to the new religion rather than suffer the alternative, loss of life, reserved for those other than “people of the book,” i.e., monotheists who possessed scriptures.

Early Arab Military Rule

For many conquerors to endure the first order of business is to maintain order and deter threats by building a strong military and strong military infrastructure. The Arabs did this by establishing the garrison towns of Kufah and Basra in Iraq and Fustat (Cairo) in Egypt. They were built to house Muslim troops which lived separately from the local population. Soldiers were in charge protecting the people and keeping order not in governing. Mosques were built in the garrisons. [Source: “A History of the Arab Peoples” by Albert Hourani (Faber and Faber, 1991)]

Soldiers were told to be good Muslims. Drunkenness was not tolerated and soldiers were encouraged to live simply. Many of the original Arabs didn’t like the system. Being a professional soldiers wasn’t as much fun as being a raider. They didn’t earn much booty living in the garrisons and grew homesick.

Because the Arabs viewed their subjects like business partners rather than slaves, non-Muslims were given many of same rights as Muslims. They were seen as “protected subjects” and Muslims were not allowed to fight with them the same they couldn’t fight with other Muslims. Over time non-Muslims and non-Arabs moved into the garrison towns. Some converted to Islam and prayed in the mosques. Others joined the military.

Early Arab Imperial Rule

---

The early Arab-Muslim rulers drew their strength from the countryside but to establish themselves they needed to create dynasties based in the cities, where wealth was concentrated and political forces could be mobilized quickly. [Source: “A History of the Arab Peoples” by Albert Hourani (Faber and Faber, 1991)]

Imperial rule was justified by relationships to the Prophet or his family or early followers and maintained in the cities by: 1) forming alliances with powerful religious leaders and merchants; 2) having a strong, loyal military and able and fair administrators; 3) keeping the masses happy or at least appeased; and 4) convincing them that their rule was legitimate. In the countryside support came from landowners and tribal leaders.

In the royal cities, the ruling caliph, sultan or emir lived in a royal compound with a palace, royal treasury, mint, offices for administrators, gardens and outer courts were business was conducted and ambassadors were received. The inner court was reserved for the leader and his family. It often included a harem guarded by eunuches.

Early Arab Administration

The primary duties of the Arab-Muslim governments were to maintain order, collect taxes to support the government and dispense justice. Education and social services were provided by religious institutions. Money for building mosques and other grand buildings often came from the government but also came from other sources. There were not many infrastructure projects like roads. There were some water projects. [Source: “A History of the Arab Peoples” by Albert Hourani (Faber and Faber, 1991)]

The bureaucracy was governed by high officials called “wazirs. The local people were left to preside over their own affairs. In many cases the Byzantine and Persian rulers remained. Over time they were replaced by Arabs and Muslim law was applied. Authorities were backed up a police force and security forces often comprised of local people.

There were initially significantly large migrations of Arabs to non-Arab lands. Local landowners were largely displaced by Arab landowners to prevent uprisings and make the collection of taxes easier. Some of the new landlords were military men who were given land as a reward. The Arabs ruled over vast agricultural lands, particularly in Iraq, for the first time and needed all the help they could get to keep them maintained and productive. Initially they didn’t have the know how to do it themselves.

There were taxes on the import and export of goods, on urban trades and crafts and on agricultural production. Non-Muslims paid a poll tax graded according to wealth. Muslims paid taxes under terms of the Islamic zakat system.

People in the countryside generally provided their own security. Their ties to the government were often related to how near or far they were from the city where the leaders were based. An intelligence service operated in the provinces to keep the leaders informed.

Christians and Jews Under the Early Arab-Muslim Rulers

---

Jews and Christians were not forced to convert. They were honored as “People of the Book” and given special, distinct status within the Muslim-Arab community. They were allowed to practice their religion and keep their beliefs but were require to pay a special poll tax and were not allowed to serve in the army. The same policy was later adopted by the Ottomans.

Muslim leaders have traditionally tolerated people from other faiths living in their territories. Under Islamic rule and Islamic law, Jews and Christians lived with Muslims in relative harmony, and were allowed to practice their religion and run their own affairs as long as they met certain obligations, namely paying the poll tax, which Muslims did not have to meet. In many cases, Jews had their own legal system and social services and Christians had their own religious authorities. [Source: “A History of the Arab Peoples” by Albert Hourani (Faber and Faber, 1991)]

There were numerous restrictions though: 1) Christians and Jews were restricted from wearing certain colors (they couldn’t wear green, the main Muslim color) and sometimes were required to wear certain identifying clothes; 2) they couldn’t marry Muslim women, inherit money from Muslims, carry weapons, ride horses; 3) they could not build new places of worship and there were limits on what was acceptable in their existing places of worship; and 4) their testimony was not accepted in Muslim courts. This form of sanctified second class citizen was much better than the often severe repression that non-Christians suffered under Christian rule.

Non-Muslims were excluded from powerful positions and certain professions and were forced to make a living in others. Doctors and long distance traders were often Jews. In Egypt, the financial services were dominated by Coptic Christians. Drug making and gold and silver smithing were crafts dominated by Jews and Christians. As a rule Islamic rulers respected local customs and cultures and persecutions of minorities was rare. Many historians have argued that minorities did much better under Muslim rule than they did under Christian rule. In Jerusalem, the Arab caliphs refused to let important Christian churches be turned into mosques. By contrast, when the Crusaders retook Jerusalem they dashed out the brains of young children on the walls; infants were tossed over the battlements; merchant were roasted in fires and torn apart to see if they had swallowed gold. Jew were driven into synagogues and burnt. People of different religions and ethnic groups lived peacefully for centuries under the Ottoman millet system. The Muslim rulers of India and Spain, where also generally regarded as tolerant.

Arab rulers brought Jewish, Christian, Greek, Persian and Indian scholars to Baghdad and other intellectual centers. These foreign scholars contributed elements of their own culture and contributed to the development of Arab culture. Among the greatest advancements was merging Arabic numerals with the Hindu concept of zero and Greek geometry and devising algebra and trigonometry and spreading them to Europe.

Caliphs

---

The leaders that succeeded Muhammad were called Caliphs. Caliph is an Arabic that means "successor," "lieutenant" or "viceroy." It refers a supreme religious leader who is a descendant of Muhammad. They were powerful but they did not have the connection with divinity that Muhammad had. Additionally in the Muslim world, there were sultans, sovereigns of Muslim kingdoms.

The Prophet had no spiritual successor inasmuch as God's revelation (the Quran) was given only to Muhammad. There were, however, successors to the Prophet's temporal authority, and these were the caliphs. Caliphs were not regarded as prophets or infallible interpreters of religious doctrines. They were religious and political leaders of the entire Muslim community and guardian of Muslim law and the Islamic holy sites. Their duty was to maintain peace and uphold the law in the Muslim community. Their qualifications included knowledge of religious laws and widely acknowledged virtuousness. It was also important for them to be linked by blood to Muhammad's Quraysh tribe.

The first four Caliphs — Abu Bakr, Omar, Othman and Ali — were all from Mecca and all close friends or relatives of Muhammad. Known as the Rightly Guided, they succeeded Muhammad. Under their command, the Arab armies carried the new faith of Islam from Arabia to the shores of the Mediterranean and to the eastern reaches of Iran. Later caliphs lived outside Arabia. They ruled over an empire that was considerably larger than the area that Muhammad presided over.

For the first thirty years, caliphs managed the growing Islamic empire from Yathrib, which had been renamed Madinat an Nabi ("the city of the Prophet") or Al Madinah al Munawwarah ("the illuminated city"). This is usually shortened simply to Medina — "the city." Within a short time, the caliphs had conquered a large empire. With the conclusion of the apostasy wars, the Arab tribes united behind Islam and channeled their energies against the Roman and Persian empires. Arab-led armies pushed quickly through both of these empires and established Arab control from what is now Spain to Pakistan.*

The achievements of Islam were great and various, but after 656 these achievements ceased to be controlled from Arabia. After the third caliph, Uthman, was assassinated in 656, the Muslim world was split, and the fourth caliph, Ali (murdered in 660) spent much of his time in Iraq. After Ali, the Umayyads established a hereditary line of caliphs in Damascus. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the Abbasids, who ruled from Baghdad. By the latter part of the seventh century the political importance of Arabia in the Islamic world had declined. Caliphs ruled the Islamic world until 1258 when the last caliph and all his heirs were killed by the Mongols. Despite being greatly weakened after the 12th century caliphs endured for 1,300 years until the caliphate was abolished in 1924 by the leaders of modern secular Turkey.

First Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Omar, Othman and Ali

Abu Bakr (Caliph from 632-34) was an old close, friend of Muhammad and the father of his favorite wife, Aisha. He became caliph in a meeting of close friends of Muhammad and Muslim leaders even though many people thought Ali — Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law — was more deserving because he was a blood relative of Muhammad

Abu Bakr's rule was short (two years) but critical to shaping Islam. He led the wars of ribbah (apostasy) against tribes that had seceded from the Muhammad's tribal confederation. He subdued the revolt with great political skill and was able to keep Arabs unified after Muhammad's death, no easy task.

Omar ibn al-Khattab (Caliph from 634-44) was the second caliph and Muhammad's successor. He was a devoted pagan and lover of poetry, until he was converted to Islam by the beauty of the language in Qur’an and married one Muhammad's daughters. Omar is remembered most as a military leader, who was able harness the Arab raiding urges, which bubbled under the surface among Muslims who were not allowed to fight each other, into a campaign against non-Muslims, in the process creating a Muslim empire that stretched across the Middle East. Omar was assassinated in a mosque in Medina 644 by a Persian prisoner of war.

---

Othman ibn Affan, (Caliph from 644-56) was the third caliph. He was a young merchant from the powerful Umayyad family and the first Muslim from an influential family. Othman (also spelled Uthman was weaker than his predecessors but the Muslim empire continued to prosper and expand. However he alienated many Muslims, especially those who were close to Muhammad in Medina, by picking members of his family for high positions. Malcontents began looking to Ali as the answer to their problems. In 656 Othman was assassinated by malcontent soldiers who broke into the caliph's simple home and killed him. The killers believed they were carrying out God's will and declared Ali as Caliph.

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Caliph from 656-61) was the fourth caliph. Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, he was the husband of Muhammad's favorite daughter Fatima and grew up in Muhammad's household. Ali seemed like the natural choice to be the first caliph. He was the closest male relative of Muhammad and the first male convert to Islam. He was regarded as a good soldier, charismatic, and pious, and was known for the wisdom of his judgements — a saying of the Prophet goes: “Ali is special to me and I am special to him; he is the supporting friend of every believer” — but because he was still young and inexperienced Abu Bakr was picked as the first caliph.

When Ali became caliph he established his capital in Kufa, Iraq. He was supported by the people of Medina, Muslims who resented the Umayyads, and traditionalist Muslims, but he was not universally accepted. The Umayyad elite opposed him and his rise to caliph. The assassination which brought him to power compromised his authority. A civil war broke out soon after Ali became caliph between his supporters and those of Muawiya, a relative of Othman.

Division of Sunnis and Shiites

Early leadership controversies within the Muslim community led to divisions that still have an impact on the body of believers. When Muhammad died, leadership fell to his father-in-law, Abu Bakr, who became the first caliph (khalifa , or successor), a position that combined spiritual and secular power. A separate group advocated the leadership of Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, who had married his daughter Fatima. Leadership could have fallen to Ali's son Husayn, but, in the power struggle that followed, in 680 Husayn and seventy-two followers were murdered at Karbala (now in modern Iraq). [Source: Library of Congress *]

---

This leadership dispute formed the most crucial dividing point in Islamic history: the victorious party went on to found the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750), which had its headquarters at Damascus, leading the majority of Muslims in the Sunni path. The disaffected Shiitet Ali (or Party of Ali) viewed only his line as legitimate and continued to follow descendants of Husayn as their leader. Among the followers of this Shiite path, there is a party of "Seveners" who trace the lineage of imams down to Ismail (d. 762), the Seventh Imam and eldest son of the Sixth Imam. The Ismailis are the largest Shiite group in India, and are concentrated in Maharashtra and Gujarat. A second group, the "Twelvers" (the most numerous Shiite group worldwide), traces the lineage of imams through twelve generations, believing that the last or Twelfth Imam became "hidden" and will reappear in the world as a savior, or Mahdi, at some time in the future.*

The division between Sunni and Shiite dates back to purely political struggles in the seventh century, but over time between the two major communities many divisive differences in ritual and legal interpretations have evolved. The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni, and in contemporary India 90 percent of Muslims follow this path. Sunnis have recognized no legitimate caliph after the position was abolished in Turkey in 1924, placing the direction of the community clearly with the ulama.*

See Separate Article: HISTORY OF SUNNI-SHIA DIVISIONS africame.factsanddetails.com

Rulers of the Early Islamic Dynasties

Caliphs and Wazirs in the Early Islamic Period
Ruler, Muslim dates A.H., Christian dates A.D.
Rashidun: 11–40: 632–61
Abu Bakr: 11–13: 632–34
cUmar ibn al-Khattab: 13–23: 634–44
cUthman ibn cAffan: 23–35: 644–56
cAli ibn Abi-Talib: 35–40: 656–61
[Source: Department of Islamic Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art]

---

Umayyad Dynasty: 41–132: 661–750
Ruler, Muslim dates A.H., Christian dates A.D.
Mucawiya I: 41–60: 661–80
Yazid I: 60–64: 680–83
Mucawiya II: 64: 683–84
Marwan I: 64–65: 684–85
cAbd al-Malik: 65–86: 685–705
al-Walid I: 86–96: 705–15
Sulayman: 96–99: 715–17
cUmar II: 99–101: 717–20
Yazid II: 101–5: 720–24
Hisham: 105–25: 724–43
al-Walid II: 125–26: 743–44
Yazid III: 126: 744
Ibrahim: 126: 744
Marwan II: 127–32: 744–50

Abbasid Dynasty—Iraq: 132–656: 750–1258
Ruler, Muslim dates A.H., Christian dates A.D.
al-Saffah: 132–36: 749–54
al-Mansur: 136–58: 754–75
al-Mahdi: 158–69: 775–85
al-Hadi: 169–70: 785–86
Harun al-Rashid: 170–93: 786–809
al-Amin: 193–98: 809–13
al-Ma'mun: 198–218: 813–33
al-Muctasim: 218–27: 833–42
al-Wathiq: 227–32: 842–47
al-Mutawakkil: 232–47: 847–61
al-Muntasir: 247–48: 861–62
al-Mustacin: 248–52: 862–66
al-Muctazz: 252–55: 866–69
al-Muhtadi: 255–56: 869–70
al-Muctamid: 256–79: 870–92
al-Muctadid: 279–89: 892–902
al-Muktafi: 289–95: 902–8
al-Muqtadir: 295–320: 908–32
al-Qahir: 320–22: 932–34
al-Radi: 322–29: 934–40
al-Muttaqi: 329–333: 940–44
al-Mustakfi: 333–34: 944–46
al-Mutic: 334–63: 946–74
al-Ta'ic: 363–81: 974–91
al-Qadir: 381–422: 991–1031
al-Qa'im: 422–67: 1031–75

---

al-Muqtadi: 467–87: 1075–94
al-Mustazhir: 487–512: 1094–1118
al-Mustarshid: 512–29: 1118–35
al-Rashid: 529–30: 1135–36
al-Muqtafi: 530–55: 1136–60
al-Mustanjid: 555–66: 1160–70
al-Mustadi': 566–75: 1170–80
al-Nasir: 575–622: 1180–1225
al-Zahir: 622–23: 1225–26
al-Mustansir: 623–40: 1226–42
al-Mustacsim: 640–56: 1242–58

Barmakid: ca. 165–221: ca. 781–835
Ruler, Muslim dates A.H., Christian dates A.D.
Barmak:

Khalid: d. 165: d. 781
Yahya: d. 190: d. 805
Jacfar: d. 187: d. 803
al-Fadl: d. 193: d. 808
Musa: d. 221: d. 835
cImran: ?: ?

Abbasid—Egypt: 659–923: 1261–1517
Ruler, Muslim dates A.H., Christian dates A.D.
al-Mustansir: 659: 1261
al-Hakim I: 660–701: 1261–1302
al-Mustakfi I: 701–40: 1302–40
al-Wathiq I: 740–41: 1340–41
al-Hakim II: 741–53: 1341–52
al-Muctadid I: 753–63: 1352–62
al-Mutawakkil I (1st reign): 763–79: 1362–77
al-Muctasim (1st reign): 779: 1377
al-Mutawakkil I (2nd reign): 779–85: 1377–83
al-Wathiq II: 785–88: 1383–85
al-Muctasim (2nd reign): 788–91: 1385–89
al-Mutawakkil I (3rd reign): 791–808: 1389–1406
al-Mustacin: 808–16: 1406–14
al-Muctadid II: 816–45: 1414–41
al-Mustakfi II: 845–55: 1441–51
al-Qa'im: 855–59: 1451–55
al-Mustanjid: 859–84: 1455–79
al-Mutawakkil II: 884–903: 1479–97
al-Mustamsik (1st reign): 903–14: 1497–1508
al-Mutawakkil III (1st reign): 914–22: 1508–16
al-Mustamsik (2nd reign): 922–23: 1516–17
al-Mutawakkil III (3rd reign): 923: 1517

Selected early Shici: 35–ca. 264: 656–ca. 878
cAli: d. 40: d. 661
Hasan: d. ca. 49: d. ca. 669
Husayn: d. 61: d. 680
cAli Zayn al-cAbidin: d. 94: d. 712
Muhammad al-Baqir: d. 113: d. 731
Jacfar al-Sadiq: d. 148: d. 765
Musa al-Kazim: d. 183: d. 799
cAli al-Rida: d. 203: d. 818
Muhammad al-Jawad: d. 220: d. 835
cAli al-Hadi: d. 254: d. 868
Hasan al-cAskari: d. 260: d. 874
Muhammad al-Mantazar: d. ca. 264: d. ca. 878

Rulers of Iraq and Syria before the Seljuks

Iraq and Syria (before the Seljuqs)
Dynasty, Ruler, Muslim dates A.H., Christian dates A.D.
Hamdanid—Mosul: 317–391: 927–1000
Nasir al-Dawla al-Hasan: 317–58: 929–69
cUddat al-Dawla Abu Taghlib: 358–79: 969–89
Ibrahim / al-Husayn (joint rule): 379–91: 989–1000
Hamdanid—Aleppo: 333–394: 945–1004
Sayf al-Dawla cAli I: 333–56: 945–67
Sacd al-Dawla Sharif I: 356–81: 967–91
Sacid al-Dawla Sacid: 381–92: 991–1002
cAli II: 392–94: 1002–4
Sharif II: 394: 1004
Mirdasid: 414–472: 1023–1079
cUqaylid: 380–489: 990–1096
Marwanid: 372–478: 983–1085
Mazyadid: 350–545: 961–1150
Inalid: 490–579: 1096–1183
[Source: Department of Islamic Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art]

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons

Text Sources: Internet Islamic History Sourcebook: sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Arab News, Jeddah; “Islam, a Short History” by Karen Armstrong; “A History of the Arab Peoples” by Albert Hourani (Faber and Faber, 1991); Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, BBC, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, The Guardian, Al Jazeera, The New Yorker, Reuters, Associated Press, AFP, Library of Congress and various books and other publications.

Last updated April 2024

---