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SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD OF ANCIENT EGYPT
The Second Intermediate Period of ancient Egyptian history lasted from around 1640 to 1550 B.C. and embraced Dynasties 14 to 17. During this time, the central government in Egypt once again collapsed and a group called the "Hyksos" rose to power, controlling much of northern Egypt. The term "Intermediate" is used to describe periods when there was no strong centralized government unifying the Upper and Lower Egypt.
According to the New Catholic Encyclopedia: During the Second Intermediate Period the chief rivals in Egypt were a new group of kings at Thebes (Dynasty 17) and a series of kings of Asiatic origin who ruled from the Delta (Dynasties 15 and 16). The Delta kings were known as the Hyksos from the Egyptian term hekau-khasut (rulers of foreign lands), signifying their foreign origin. The Hyksos had probably lived in Egypt for some time, however, and they adopted many Egyptian cultural forms alongside their own. Their capital was at Avaris in the northeast Delta, with a palace and fortifications like those also found in Palestine and Syria. It was the Hyksos who introduced horses and chariot-based warfare to Egypt. They made few changes to the administration of Egypt, instead relying on the loyalty of officials in the north and central parts of the country. [Source: New Catholic Encyclopedia, The Gale Group Inc., 2003]
The Middle Kingdom collapsed at least in part because of the weaknesses of its later kings, which opened it up to conquest from the Hyksos. The Second Intermediate Period began toward the end of the 13th Dynasty when the centralized government began once again to falter, leading to the rise of local rulers in the eastern Nile Delta. The period reached its culmination when the Hyksos invaded from Western Asia and usurped the throne.
According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “This period begins with the waning power of the Memphite kings during the 13th Dynasty. Asiatic immigrants who had been settling in Egypt for some time began to rise to power in the eastern Delta and began pacifying their neighboring regions. These Asiatics came to be known as the Hyksos. The regions either allied themselves to the Hyksos or were besieged by them. The Hyksos made their way down the Nile and took Memphis about 1600 B.C.(B.C.) which marked the end of the 13th Dynasty. It is unclear how much of Egypt the Hyksos controlled, but some experts believe they may have controlled the entire country for awhile. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]
See Separate Article: HYKSOS: THEIR HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT ON ANCIENT EGYPT africame.factsanddetails.com
Influence of the Hyksos on Ancient Egypt
According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “The Hyksos revitalized the dying culture of the Egyptians, while keeping major institutions alive. Trade with the Near East brought new ideas and technologies to the Egyptian people. The art of bronze working made for better weapons for foot soldiers. The chariot improved the effectiveness of the army while scale armor protected soldiers in battle. Other weapons like the composite bow and new shapes of scimitar were introduced. +\ [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]
“Improvements to society included a new potter's wheel, the vertical loom and new musical instruments. Some of the musical instruments included the lyre, the long-necked lute, the oboe and the tambourine. Besides these things, the Hyksos introduced new vegetable and fruit crops and humped-backed cattle called zebu. +\
“Sometime around 1570 B.C., the Hyksos King, Apophis, sent the ruler of Thebes, Seqenenre, a message. The message was, in essence, an insult. This set off a war between the Thebans and Hyksos which would end some years later when Kamose, the Theban king, cornered the Hyksos in Avaris. The Thebans then drove the Hyksos from Egypt and chased them into Palestine. This, too, marked the beginning of the New Kingdom and the 18th Dynasty as well. +\
Hyksos Invade Ancient Egypt
Hyksos rule over Egypt was relatively brief. They established themselves for a while in Memphis and exactly how they came to power is not clear. Later they established a capital in Avaris, along the Mediterranean in the Nile Delta. During the Second Intermediate Period they ruled northern Egypt while Thebes-based Egyptians ruled southern Egypt. In the 2nd Intermediate Period, the four rulers during 15 and 16 dynasties were Hyksos. The Hyksos were thrown out of Egypt in 1567 B.C.
The Hyksos are sometimes referred to as the Shepherd Kings or Desert Princes. In the A.D. 1st century The Roman-Jewish historian Josephus described the Hyksos as sacrilegious invaders who despoiled the land. One ancient text on the Hyksos reads: “Hear ye all people and the folk as many as they may be, I have done these things through the counsel of my heart. I have not slept forgetfully, (but) I have restored that which has been ruined. I have raise up that which has gone to pieces formerly, since the Asiatics were in the midst of Avaris of the Northland, and vagabonds were in the midst of them, overthrowing that which had been made. They ruled without Re, and he did not act by divine command down to (the reign of) my majesty. (Now) I am established upon the thrones of Re....” [Source: James B. Pritchard, “Ancient Near Eastern Texts,” Princeton, 1969, web.archive.org, p. 231]
Chronicles that portray Hyksos rule as cruel and repressive were probably Egyptian propaganda. More likely they came to power within the existing system rather than conquering it and ruled by respecting the local culture and keeping political and administrative systems intact. Mark Millmore wrote in discoveringegypt.com: “The Hyksos presented themselves as Egyptian kings and appear to have been accepted as such. They tolerated other lines of kings within the country, both those of the 17th dynasty and the various minor Hyksos who made up the 16th dynasty.” [Source: Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com]
“The Hyksos brought many innovations to the Egyptians: looms, new methods of bronze working, irrigation and pottery as well as new musical instruments and musical styles. New breeds of animals and crops were introduced. But the most important changes were in the area of warfare; composite bows, new types of daggers and scimitars, and above all the horse and chariot were all introduced by the Hyksos. It has been said that the Hyksos modernized Egypt and ultimately the Egyptians themselves benefited from their rule. [Sources: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com, Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com]
Second Intermediate Period Dynasties: the 14th, 15th, 16th and 17th Dynasties
Asiatic official with a mushroom-shaped hairdo
The 14th Dynasty — also known as the Xios Dynasty — lasted for around 57 years and ruled from the western Nile Delta. It produced two known kings and had just begun its existance at the end of the 13th dynasty. Little is known about it. It might have been contemporary of the 13th Dynasty. The Delta was settled by successive waves of nomadic people from Palestine. [Sources: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com, Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com]
The 15th Dynasty was the Hyksos Dynasty which ruled from Avaris in the eastern delta. This dynasty was started when an Asiatic group invaded Egypt and began pacifying Lower Egypt. They were held up by the city of Thebes which would not ally with the Hyksos. The Hyksos, sacked the old capital of Memphis and built their capital at Avaris, in the Delta. The dynasty consisted of five possibly six kings, the best-known being Apepi I, who reigned for up to 40 years. Peaceful relations existed for some time until the Hyksos King Apophis I insulted Seqenenre Tao and started a full-scale war. The war ended when Kamose defeated the Hyksos by capturing Avaris and sent the Hyksos fleeing into Palestine. 15th Dynasty rulers: Sheshi, Yakubher, Khyan, Apepi I, Apepi II.
The 16th dynasty is characterized by minor kings who ruled in the shadow of the 15th Dynasty and produced two known rulers: Anather and Yakobaam. These rulers are known from the scarabs found in northern Egypt and southern Palestine. At the outset of the 17th Dynasty, while the Hyksos ruled northern Egypt a new line of native rulers was developing in Thebes. They controlled the area from Elephantine in the south, to Abydos in the middle of the country. Mark Millmore wrote: “The early rulers made no attempt to challenge the Hyksos but an uneasy truce existed between them. However, the later rulers rose against the Hyksos and a number of battles were fought. King Tao II, also know as Seqenenre, was probably killed in one of these battles since his mummy shows evidence of terrible head wounds. It was to be one of his sons Ahmose, the founder of the Eighteenth dynasty, who was to expel the Hyksos from Egypt.”
The 17th Dynasty was a Theban Dynasty that continued the culture of the Middle Kingdom. It coexisted with the 15th Dynasty until Seqenenre Tao began to fight against the Hyksos. Kamose, the son of Seqenenre Tao, eventually drove out the Hyksos which marks the end of the 17th Dynasty. Kamose's younger brother, Ahmose I, becomes King of Upper and Lower Egypt and begins the 18th Dynasty, the New Kingdom. 17th Dynasty rulers: Sobekemsaf, Intef VII, Tao I, Tao II (around 1560 B.C.) and Kamose (1555-1550 B.C.).
Second Intermediate Period Rulers
According to Minnesota State University, Mankato: “Khyan was considered to be one of the most powerful of the Hyksos princes and his name is not found south of Gebelein. The Hyksos brought Egypt into more intimate and continuous contact with the peoples and cultures of western Asia than ever before in its history. There were many things which defined the events of Khyan's reign. Such things include: new religions, new philosophical concepts, new artistic styles and media styles. Some of the other things that changed as well was technology. Things developed during this time are the well sweep, the vertical boom, the composite bow, the horse and the horse drawn chariot. [Source: Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com +]
Hyksos chariot Second Intermediate Period
(ca. 1640–1540 B.C.)
Dynasty 14–Dynasty 16, (ca. 1640–1635 B.C.)
Dynasty 17, (ca. 1635–1550 B.C.)
Tao I (ca. 1560 B.C.)
Tao II (ca. 1560 B.C.)
Kamose (ca. 1552–1550 B.C.)
Kamose, the son of Seqenenre Tao, eventually drove out the Hyksos which marks the end of the 17th Dynasty. He ruled for about three years during the struggle to expel the Hyksos from Egypt. Kamose's father, Seqenenre Tao, began the fight to expel the Hyksos after Apophis I sent an insult to him. Kamose's reign was a campaign or series of campaigns against the Hyksos. Kamose's younger brother, Ahmose I, becomes King of Upper and Lower Egypt and begins the 18th Dynasty,
Execution-Style Death of King Seqenenre-Taa-II
King Seqenenre-Taa-II (ruled 1560 or 1558–1555 B.C.) is also known as Seqenenre Tao, Seqenera Djehuty-aa and Sekenenra Taa. He ruled over the last of the local kingdoms of the Theban region of Egypt in the Seventeenth Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. Researches have spend decades trying to figure out what happened to him. His body was found in the late 19th century and had visible wounds on its face. In February 2021, in a study published in the journal Frontiers of Medicine, Egyptian scientists announced that had established that Egyptian King Seqenenre-Taa-II died in battle after X-raying his more than 3,600-year-old mummy. “Seqenenre Tao II, "the Brave", reigned over southern Egypt and famously led Egyptian troops against the Hyksos, a dynasty of West Asian origin which had taken over the Nile Delta. [Source: AFP, February 18, 2021; ]
AFP reported: “Seqenenre's body had been examined by X-ray in the 1960s, revealing head wounds adeptly concealed by embalmers and giving rise to theories that he was killed in battle or a palace assassination. But after conducting CT scans and producing 3D images, archaeologist Zahi Hawass and Cairo University radiology professor Sahar Salim concluded that he was killed in an "execution ceremony" after being taken prisoner on the battlefield.
“The CT scan "revealed details of the head injuries, including wounds that had not been discovered in previous examinations and had been skillfully hidden by embalmers," the Ministry of Antiquities said in a statement. The researchers then studied these injuries against various Hyksos weapons stored at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, including an axe, a spear and several daggers.
“The mummy's "deformed hands indicate that Seqenenre may have been captured on the battlefield, and his hands were tied behind his back, preventing him from deflecting the fierce attack" on his head, the statement said. Their studyalso revealed bone scans showing that the pharaoh was around 40 years old when he died.
Expulsion of the Hyksos
The Hyksos were thrown out of Egypt in 1567 B.C. One ancient text on an episode from this event reads: “The commander of a crew, Ah-mose, son of Eben, the triumphant, says: I speak to you, all mankind, that I may let you know the favors which have come to me. I have been awarded gold seven times in the presence of the entire land, and male and female slaves in like manner, and I have been vested with very many fields. The reputation of a valiant man is from what he has done, not being destroyed in this land forever. [Source: James B. Pritchard, “Ancient Near Eastern Texts,” Princeton, 1969, web.archive.org, p. 233-234].
“He speaks thus: I had my upbringing in the town of el-Kab, my father being a soldier of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Seqnen-Re, the triumphant, his name being Bebe, (5) the son of (the woman) Ro-onet. Then I served as soldier in his place in the ship, "The Wild Bull," in the time of the Lord of the Two Lands: Neb-pehti-Re, the triumphant, when I was (still) a boy, before I had taken a wife, (but) while I was (still) sleeping in a net hammock.
Hyksos invasion by 19th-century artist Hermann Vogel
“But after I had set up a household, then I was taken on the ship, "Northern," because I was valiant. Thus I used to accompany the Sovereign Ñlife, prosperity, health! Ñon foot, following his excursions in his chariot. When the town of Avaris was besieged, then I showed valor on foot in the presence of his majesty. Thereupon I was appointed to the ship, "Appearing in Memphis." Then there was fighting on the water in the canal PaDjedku of Avaris. Thereupon I made a capture, (10) and I carried away a hand.R It was reported to the king's herald. Then the Gold of Valor was given to me. Thereupon there was fighting again in this place. Then I made a capture again there and brought away a hand. Then the Gold of Valor was given to me over again.
“Then there was fighting in the Egypt which is south of this town. Thereupon I carried off a man (as) living prisoner. I went down into the water. He was taken captive on the side of the town Ñand crossed over the water carrying him. Report was made to the king's herald. Thereupon I was awarded gold another time. Then Avaris was despoiled. Then I carried off spoil from there: one man, three women, a total of four persons. Then his majesty gave them to me to be slaves. Then Sharuhen was besieged for three years. Then his majesty despoiled it. Thereupon I carried off spoil from there: two women and a hand. Then the Gold of Valor was given to me, and my spoil was given to me to be slaves. Now after his majesty had killed the Asiatics, then he saile southward to Khenti-hen-nefer, to destroy the Nubian nomads ....
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, escholarship.org ; Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Egypt sourcebooks.fordham.edu ; Tour Egypt, Minnesota State University, Mankato, ethanholman.com; Mark Millmore, discoveringegypt.com discoveringegypt.com; Metropolitan Museum of Art, National Geographic, Smithsonian magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Discover magazine, Times of London, Natural History magazine, Archaeology magazine, The New Yorker, BBC, Encyclopædia Britannica, Time, Newsweek, Wikipedia, Reuters, Associated Press, The Guardian, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, “World Religions” edited by Geoffrey Parrinder (Facts on File Publications, New York); “History of Warfare” by John Keegan (Vintage Books); “History of Art” by H.W. Janson Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.), Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications.
Last updated July 2024